Good Faith and Insurance Contracts

Peter MacDonald Eggers and Sir Simon Picken

Document

Page 689

Index

Abandonment, notice of, 11.115
ABI (Association of British Insurers), 5.20, 6.1
Absolute good faith, 1.03
Abuse of rights, 3.96–3.97, 10.40
Acceptance
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.115–17.116
- formation of contract, 10.10, 10.12
- open cover, 1.50–1.51
- premiums, 10.12, 16.62, 17.115–17.116
- reinsurance treaties, 1.50–1.51
- risk, of, 1.50–1.51
  - Account of profits, 16.11
Accounts, 6.50
Acquiescence, 16.90, 17.164
Addendum, variation by, 17.118
Additional premium clauses, 10.32–10.33
- adjustment of obligations, 3.57, 10.32–10.33
- disclosure, full, 3.59
- fraudulent devices, 11.66–11.68
- held covered clauses, 3.59
- marine insurance, 3.59
- materiality, 14.60
- notice, 10.33
- post-contractual duty, 10.32–10.33
- pre-contractual duty, 3.59
- reasonable premiums, 3.59
- war risks, 10.30, 11.65–11.66
Adequate disclosure, 7.22
Adjustment of obligations, 10.16–10.44
- additional premium clauses, 3.59, 10.32–10.33
- cancellation clauses, 3.608, 10.35–10.40
- change of circumstances clauses, 10.34
- held covered clauses, 3.58, 10.27–10.31
- post-contractual duty, 3.53–3.61, 3.77, 10.15–10.43, 10.61–10.66
- pre-contractual duty, 3.53
- renewals, 3.61, 10.41–10.43
- risk, alteration of, 3.57
- variations to the insurance contract, 3.55–3.56, 10.14, 10.19–10.43
Admiralty Court jurisdiction, 2.30
Advice see also Legal advisers
- fiduciaries, 2.36
- fraud, 11.86
- investigations, 12.50
- professional, 2.36, 15.120
- security measures, 17.148
Affirm or avoid, election to, 17.01–17.07, 17.53–17.161
- acceptance, 17.115–17.116
- addendum, variation by, 17.118
- affirmation, meaning of, 17.58
- agents, 17.89–17.93
- applicable doctrines, 17.08–17.52
- arbitration agreements, 17.103
- arbitration clauses, severance of, 17.101, 17.103, 17.107–17.108,
- automatic avoidance clauses, 16.80
- basis clauses, 17.02
- breach of duty, 17.53–17.58
- burden of proof, 17.18–17.83, 17.162–17.163, 18.05
- certainty, 17.71
- claims, payment of, 17.119
- common law, 16.92
- communication, 16.60, 17.54, 17.97–17.98
- conduct,
  - claims, payment of, 12.57, 17.119
  - contractual rights, 17.100–17.109
  - defence, reliance on a policy, 17.117
  - policies, issue of, 17.110–17.114
  - premiums, acceptance of, 17.115–17.116
  - types of, 16.62
  - unequivocal, 17.95–17.119
  - variation, 17.118
  - waiver, 17.79, 17.96
  - words, 17.54
- consideration, 17.03, 17.54
- contractual rights, 17.100–17.109
- damages, 17.01
- defence, reliance on a policy, 17.117
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  delay, 16.61, 17.155–17.156
- effect of, 16.39
- election, definition of, 17.53
- endorsement, 17.117–17.118
- enquiries, 17.58–17.59, 17.62, 17.64
- estoppel, 17.67, 17.86–17.87, 17.97
- explanation of the facts, 17.65
- facts,
  - knowledge of, 17.57–17.66, 17.71, 17.74–17.75, 17.80
  - question of fact, 17.70–17.71
- final once made, 17.55
- fraud, 17.01, 17.59, 17.61, 17.66, 17.93, 17.107
- inactivity, 17.155–17.156
- inducement, 17.64
- intention distinguished from knowledge, 17.88
- investigations, 17.68
- issue of policies, 12.47, 17.110–17.114
- knowledge, 17.56–17.93
  - actual, 17.67–17.69
  - agents, 17.89–17.93
  - automatic avoidance clauses, 16.80
  - breach of duty, 17.53
  - certainty, 17.71
  - constructive, 17.67
  - explanation of the facts, 17.65
  - fact, question of, 17.07–17.71
- facts, of, 17.57–17.66, 17.71, 17.74–17.75, 17.80
  - imperfect, 17.66
  - intention distinguished from, 17.88
  - legal, 17.71, 17.77–17.78, 17.81–17.85
  - legal advice, 17.77–17.78, 17.81–17.85
  - life insurance, 17.91
  - London market, 17.84
  - rights, knowledge of, 17.72–17.87
  - waiver, 17.71, 17.92
- laches, 16.61, 17.159
- legal advice, 17.77–17.78, 17.81–17.85
- life insurance, 17.91
- London market, 17.84
- materiality, 17.01, 17.04, 17.64
- misrepresentation, 17.01–17.04, 17.61, 17.64
- non-disclosure, 17.61
- objectivity, 17.98
- premiums,
  - acceptance of, 17.115–17.116
  - return of, 17.04
- promissory estoppel, 17.55, 17.86–17.87, 17.116, 17.120–17.161
- question of fact, 17.70–17.72
- reliance, 17.94
- renewals, 17.114
- replacement policies, 17.113
- repudiation, 17.102, 17.117
- reservation of rights, 17.105–17.106, 17.161, 17.169
- rights, knowledge of, 17.72–17.87
- silence, 17.94, 17.130, 17.155–17.156
- slips, signing, 17.112
- termination, 16.72
- time for, 17.05–17.06
- unconscionability, 17.09–17.15
- unequivocal conduct, 17.95–17.119
- variation, 17.118
- waiver, 17.18–17.52
  - conduct, 17.79, 17.96
  - knowledge, 17.71, 17.92
  - promissory estoppel, 17.122–17.123
  - warranties, breach of, 17.08
- warranties, breach of, 17.08, 17.116–17.117
- words, 17.54, 17.97
Age
- assured, 15.16
- buildings, 15.56
- cargo, 15.58
- deterioration, 15.56
- household goods, 15.56
- knowledge, 15.57–15.58
- marine insurance, 15.57–15.58
- materiality of, 15.16, 15.56–15.58
- motor insurance, 15.56
- property, 15.56–15.58
- vessels, 15.57
Agents, 13.02–13.03, 13.49–13.93 see also Agents, fraud of; Agents, knowledge and; Brokers
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.89–17.93
- allegations, 7.81
- alter egos, 11.95
- assured, of the, 13.49–13.50, 13.65–13.67, 13.89–13.92
- authority, 13.65–13.72
  - actual or ostensible, 7.28, 13.65
  - binding, 1.28
  - ostensible, 7.28
  - proposal forms, 13.89–13.91
- avoidance, 16.46
- breach of duty, 13.65
- capacity, 13.73
- claims, 11.95–11.98
- claims handling, 13.49
- co-insurers, 13.37, 13.39
- communications, 7.81
- conduct, 17.101
- confidentiality, 8.97
- consumer insurance, 13.93
- course of business, 13.56, 13.70, 13.72
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  damages, 13.67
- fraudulent claims, 11.95–11.98, 16.46
- information, 8.102–8.105, 13.72–13.73, 13.90
- insurers, of, 13.50, 13.65, 13.89–13.92
- intelligence, 7.81
- knowledge, 8.46, 17.89–17.93
- late, information provided too, 8.102–8.105,
- marine insurance, 15.10
- materiality, 13.65–13.74, 13.89, 14.76, 16.46
- misrepresentation, 7.28, 13.65–13.63, 13.89
- negotiations, 13.49
- notice, 13.69, 13.71
- ordinary course of business, 13.56, 13.70, 13.73
- placing, disclosure at, 12.20, 13.51–13.53
- principal,
  - identification of, 13.50
  - notice to, 13.68
  - undisclosed principal, 15.10
- proposal forms, completion of, 13.90–13.91
- reinsurance, 13.55, 13.66
- representations, 7.77, 13.49, 13.65–13.67, 13.89
- representees, as, 13.68–13.74
- representors, as, 13.65–13.67
- rumours, allegations, communications and intelligence, 7.81
- undisclosed principal, 15.10
- waiver, 13.68–13.71
Agents, fraud of, 15.123
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.93
- alter egos, 11.95
- attribution, rule of, 11.96, 11.98
- authority, actual or apparent, 11.97
- co-assured, 11.97
- companies, alter egos of, 11.95
- dereliction of duty, acting in, 11.98
- genuine part of claims, 11.97
- knowledge, 7.139–7.146, 13.53–13.60, 15.121
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 11.95, 13.59
- placing, 11.96
- principal, on 7.141–7.144
- seaworthiness, privity of assured and, 11.95
- vicarious liability, 13.64
- wilful misconduct, 11.95
Agents, knowledge and, 13.49, 13.51–13.64
- acquired other that as an agent, 13.52–13.58, 13.73
- actual or ostensible authority, 7.140, 13.53
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.89–17.93
- breach of duty, 7.139–7.146, 13.52–13.58
- capacity, 13.73
- claims, fraudulent, 13.62–13.64
- concealment, 7.140
- constructive, 7.130
- deemed, 7.133
- dereliction of duty, 13.58
- directors, 7.117–7.118
- fraud, 7.139–7.146, 13.53–13.60, 13.62–13.64, 15.123
- principal, on, 7.141–7.143
- general, 7.116–7.118
- imputed knowledge, 7.111–7.129, 7.139–7.146, 8.14, 13.04, 13.63
- information, 8.102–8.105, 13.72–13.73, 13.89
- insurance contracts, 7.108–7.110
- Lloyd’s, 7.125
- marine insurance, 7.115, 7.118
- materiality, 13.52–13.53, 13.57, 13.72, 14.76
- notice, 13.71
- notice other than as an agent, knowledge acquired, 13.54–13.60, 13.73
- placing, 12.20, 13.51–13.53
- proposal forms, 13.90–13.91
- reinsurance, 13.55
Allegations see Rumours, allegations, communications and intelligence
Alter egos, 11.95, 15.26
Application of duty of good faith
- common law, 1.34, 1.36
- consumer insurance, 1.35, 1.42–1.43
- declarations, 1.34
- disclosure, 1.35, 1.47
- fairness, 1.35
- fire insurance, 1.33
- floating policies, 1.34
- inducement, 1.35
- insurance instruments, 1.48–1.54
- insurance markets, 1.33–1.38
- knowledge, 1.47
- life insurance, 1.33
- marine insurance, 1.44–1.47
- materiality, 1.35,1.34–1.40, 1.47
- open cover, 1.34
- property insurance, 1.33
- reform, 1.37, 1.38
- reinsurance treaties, 1.34
- rejection of risk, 1.40
- types of insurance policy, 1.33–1.51
- underwriters, materiality of opinions of, 1.40
- utmost good faith, 1.34–1.35, 1.38–1.44, 1.47
Arbitration agreements
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.101, 17.103, 17.107–17.108
- clauses, severance of, 17.101, 17.103, 17.107–17.108
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  forfeiture, 17.107
- promissory estoppel, 17.135
Assignees, 13.07–13.24
- ‘arising out of the contract’, meaning of, 13.12–13.13
- avoidance, 13.13–13.14, 13.16, 13.19, 13.24
- beneficial interests, 13.09
- breach of the duty, 13.15–13.23
- choses in action, 13.08–13.10, 13.15–13.16, 13.18
- co-assured, 13.07
- common law, 13.15, 13.22
- consent, 13.09
- defective policies, 13.11, 13.20
- defences, 13.09, 13.12, 13.15
- entire contract, 3.85
- equities, subject to, 13.08–13.20, 13.24
- fraudulent claims, 13.11
- insurable interest, 13.07, 13.11, 13.19
- international trade, 13.24
- Law of Property Act 1925, 13.08, 13.10, 13.12
- life insurance, 13.08
- marine insurance, 13.08–13.09, 13.12, 13.14
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 13.08–13.09, 13.12
- market practice, 13.14
- materiality, 13.11, 13.13
- misrepresentation, 13.11
- mortgagees, 1.27
- mutuality, 3.89
- non-disclosure, 4.37, 4.45, 13.11, 13.13
- notice, 13.10, 13.14
- occurrence of loss, 13.19
- Policies of Marine Assurance Act 1868, 13.12
- premiums, recovery of, 13.20
- security for debt, 13.08, 13.13
- title to sue, 13.08
- trustees, 13.15–13.16
- undertakings, letters of, 13.21
- utmost good faith, subject to duty of, 13.21–13.24
- vicarious liability, 13.20
- voidable contracts, 13.13–13.14, 13.19
- war risks, 1.27
Association of British Insurers (ABI), 5.20
Associations, fiduciaries and, 2.37
Assumption of responsibility, 16.152
Assured see also Co-assured
- age, materiality of, 15.16
- agents, 13.49–13.50, 13.65–13.67, 13.89–13.92
- brokers, 13.75–13.88
- burden of proof, 18.01–18.06
- concerns, 15.25
- financial history and practices, materiality of, 15.23–15.24
- health, materiality of, 15.18–15.20
- history, insurance, 15.100–15.110
- identity of assured, 11.91–11.93, 13.63–13.64, 15.06–15.10
- insurable interest, materiality of, 15.21–15.22, 15.59
- knowledge, 13.51–13.53
  - material facts, examples of, 15.02, 15.04–15.05
- materiality, 14.10–14.90, 14.130–14.132, 15.02, 15.04–15.05
- moral hazard, materiality and, 15.26–15.49
- nationality, materiality of, 15.11–15.15
- occupation, materiality of, 15.17
- origins, materiality of, 15.11
- privity of the, 11.95
- profession, materiality of, 15.17
- race discrimination, materiality of, 15.14
- representations, implied, 7.31
- residence, materiality of, 15.15
- unfair presentation of risk, 16.17–16.26, 16.166
  - Australian Law Reform Commission, 5.07, 5.26
Automatic avoidance clauses, 16.80
Aviation insurance, 1.37, 5.21
Avoidance or rescission, 16.32–16.95 see also Affirm or avoid, election to; Avoidance or rescission of fraudulent claims
- acquiescence, 16.90
- agents, 16.46
- arbitration agreements, 17.103, 17.106
- assignment, 13.13–13.14, 13.16, 13.19, 13.24
- Australian Law Reform Commission, 5.26
- automatic avoidance clauses, 16.80
- availability, 4.60
- bad faith, 16.39, 16.52, 16.95
- basis clauses, 9.19, 9.29
- breach of contract, 16.145
- breach of duty, 14.123, 16.32–16.95, 16.97–16.98, 16.159
- brokers, 7.26, 13.75, 13.79, 13.82
- cancellation, 16.103–16.104
- change of circumstances, 10.34
- claims, 11.24, 11.26, 11.29–11.30
- claims co-operation clauses, 10.48
- co-assured, 13.25, 13.28–13.29, 16.77–16.78
- co-insurers, 13.44, 13.47
- common law, 4.57, 16.33, 16.49–16.50, 16.64, 16.90, 16.92–16.93
- composite insurance, 16.78
- compromise, 3.76, 12.51
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  concealment, 16.38
- conduct, 16.60, 16.62
- consent, 11.120, 16.55
- consumer insurance, 5.28
- continuation of duty, 3.44, 11.108, 11.111, 11.115
- contractual avoidance, 16.08–16.82
- damages, 4.25, 6.36, 16.44, 16.127–16.128, 16.136–16.145, 16.159–16.166
- deceit, 16.65, 16.128
- declarations, 6.27, 6.30
- declining claims without, avoidance 16.46–16.51
- delay, 16.61, 17.150, 17.153, 17.155–17.157
- delivery up, 16.103–16.104
- disclosure, 4.34, 4.36, 4.42, 16.37, 16.40, 16.28, 16.53
- discovery, 1.45
- discretion, 5.08, 6.35–6.36, 16.90–16.95
- earlier policies or contracts, 16.71
- election, 16.60–16.62
- endorsements, 16.62
  - equity, 4.25, 4.27–4.28, 4.54–4.60, 16.33–16.34, 16.64, 16.90, 16.92–16.95
- estoppel, 16.61, 17.141–17.142, 17.147
- exaggerated claims, 11.63, 16.49
- exemption clauses, 16.83–16.89
- follow the settlements, 10.52
- forfeiture, 16.113–16.118
  - contractual right, 16.105–16.107
  - relief, against, 16.120
- genuine part of claims, 16.49
- guarantees or surety contracts, 2.13
- harshness of remedy, 11.120–11.125, 16.41–16.45, 16.55
- illegality, 16.64
- inactivity, 17.150, 17.153, 17.155–17.157
- inducement, 6.36–3.37, 14.104, 16.41, 16.43, 16.75
- insurance policies, existence of, 15.125
- insurers,
  - favouring, 16.42
  - more than one, 16.77, 16.79
- investigations, 12.50–12.51
- issue of policies, 12.41
- joint insurance, 16.78
- knowledge, 8.14, 13.55, 16.46, 16.60, 16.80
- laches, 16.61, 16.92, 16.94
- Law Commission, 5.27–5.28
- law reform, 5.07–5.08
- litigation, commencement of, 11.108
- marine insurance, 9.41, 9.43 11.08–11.09, 16.34, 16.56, 16.64, 16.91–16.92
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 9.41, 11.08–11.09, 16.34, 16.56, 16.64, 16.92
- materiality, 10.62–10.66
  - agents, 16.46
  - breach of duty, 14.123
  - condition precedent, 16.81
  - fraud, 16.43, 16.46, 16.55
  - inducement, 16.41
  - knowledge, 16.80
  - misrepresentation, 16.37, 16.28, 16.71–16.72
  - variation, 16.72–16.73
- meaning of avoidance, 16.32–16.35, 16.71–16.79
- meaning of rescission, 16.71–16.78
- misrepresentation, 4.51–4.57, 4.60
  - basis clauses, 9.19, 9.23
  - brokers, 7.26
  - damages and, 4.25, 6.36, 16.44
  - discretion, 6.35–6.36, 16.93
  - equity, 4.25, 4.27–4.28
  - fraudulent, 16.33, 16.64–16.65
  - guarantees or surety contracts, 2.13
  - inducement, 6.36
  - innocent, 16.34, 16.34
  - marine insurance, 9.41, 9.43
  - materiality, 16.37, 16.28, 16.71–16.72
  - meaning of avoidance, 16.71
  - Misrepresentation Act 1967, 6.35–6.37
  - non-disclosure, 16.40, 16.53
  - restitution, 16.64–16.65
  - retrospectivity, 11.120
- motor insurance, 6.27, 6.30, 13.101, 15.60
- mutuality, 3.87, 3.86, 3.95
- occupation or professional, materiality of, 15.17
- open cover, 1.54
- ownership, 15.60
- payment of claims, 16.62
- placing, 12.05
- post-contractual duty, 10.15, 10.61–10.66, 11.35, 16.53, 16.53–16.55, 16.101–16.102
- pre-contractual duty of disclosure, 3.53, 10.62, 11.120, 16.53
- premiums,
  - acceptance of, 16.62
  - calculation of, 12.53
  - recovery of, 10.62, 16.64, 16.70
- procurement, 16.76
- promissory estoppel, 17.141–17.142, 17.146
- proportionality, 11.24, 11.26, 16.15
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 16.41
- public purpose, 11.122
- questions, 9.41
- refusal to issue policies, 16.104
- rehabilitation of offenders, 6.42
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  remedies, 4.57–4.60
- renewals, 3.59, 10.41–10.43
- repudiation, 11.135
- reservations, 16.62
- restitution, 16.63–16.70, 16.123, 16.161–16.162
- retrospectivity, 11.120
- silence, 16.61, 17.94, 17.150, 17.153, 17.155–17.157
- social or policy view of good faith, 5.07
- source of, 16.32–16.35
- subrogation, 10.53
- termination, 3.49, 3.77, 3.83, 10.62, 10.65, 10.70
- third parties, 6.30, 13.101, 16.69
- time limits, 17.164
- ‘unclean hands’, 16.94–16.95
- unconscionability, 17.09–17.18
- unfair presentation of risk, 16.166
- use, 15.68
- utmost good faith, 10.15–10.18, 10.61–10.66, 11.120–11.124, 16.32–16.95
- valuation, 15.90, 15.95, 15.98
- variation, 10.22, 16.72–16.76
- void contracts, 16.36–16.40, 16.63, 16.80
- voidable contracts, 16.36–16.40
- waiver, 17.19–17.21
- warranties, 8.86–8.87, 8.91, 16.80
Avoidance or rescission of fraudulent claims
- agents, 16.46
- aggravated, 16.54
- common law, 16.49
- compromise, 3.76
- concealment, 16.38
- consent, 11.120, 16.54
- continuing duty, 3.71
- declining claims without avoidance, 16.248 16.51
- devices, 10.62, 11.70
- discretion, 16.94–16.95
- equity, 4.56–4.58
- forfeiture, 11.121, 11.126–11.127, 16.48, 16.55
- full disclosure, 3.101
- implied terms, 3.68
- Law Commission, 5.27–5.28
- marine insurance, 11.08–11.09
- materiality, 16.43, 16.46, 16.55
- misrepresentation, 16.64–16.65
- particular claims, in reference to, 3.102
- post-contractual duty, 3.14, 16.55
- prevention of fraud, 11.123
- public purpose, 11.122
- remedies, 11.130–11.132
- restitution, 16.64–16.65, 16.66
- retrospectivity, 11.120
- utmost good faith, 11.124
- void contracts, 16.38–16.40

Bad faith, 1.03
- avoidance, 16.39, 16.52, 16.95
- co-assured, 13.30–13.31
- deceit, 1.04
- dishonesty, 1.04
- fraud, 3.96
- inducement, 14.92
- mechanisms and devices to neutralise or lessen impact, 1.17
- moral hazard, 15.27
- placing, 3.06–3.07, 3.12, 7.07
- terminology, 1.03
- without bad faith, 1.04
Bankruptcy, 13.98, 13.100
Barcelona, statutes of, 4.07
Basis clauses, 8.87, 9.06–9.33
- abolition, 5.27
- accuracy of facts, 9.17
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.02
- alleviation from clauses, 9.22–9.26
- ambiguity, 9.07, 9.14
- avoidance, 9.19, 9.29
- change in circumstances, 9.22
- co-assured, 9.17
- conditions precedent, 9.07, 9.14, 9.18–9.19, 9.30
- consumer insurance, 5.28, 9.15
- Consumer Insurance (Disclosure and Representations) Act 2012, 9.27–9.33
- damages, 17.01
- declarations, 9.06, 9.17
- delay, 17.159
- effect of clauses, 9.06–9.21
- enquiries, 9.22
- false representations, 9.06
- health, 15.20
- history, insurance, 15.107
- inactivity, 17.159
- inducement, 9.06, 9.09, 9.15, 9.19
- ineffectiveness of clause, 5.18
- Insurance Act 2015, 9.27–9.33
- intention, 9.08
- interpretation, 9.08, 9.14–9.15
- language, clear and unambiguous, 9.07, 9.10, 9.14
- Law Commission, 5.18, 5.27
- law reform, 5.21
- legislation, effect of, 9.22–9.26
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  life insurance, 9.18, 15.107
- materiality, 5.21, 9.06–9.09, 9.15–9.16, 9.20–9.21
- misrepresentation, 9.09, 9.13, 9.19, 9.23
- mistake, 9.22
- motor insurance, 9.24
- nature of, 9.06–9.21
- negotiations, 5.04
- omissions, 9.21
- opinions, 9.16
- placing, 9.06–9.33
- pre-contractual representations, 9.17, 9.27
- prohibition, 9.28–9.29
- promissory estoppel, 17.144–17.146
- promissory warranties, 9.32
- proposal forms, 9.08, 9.17, 9.20
- questions, 8.56, 9.14, 9.20, 9.39
- rectification, 9.22
- reinsurance, 9.18
- representations, 9.07–9.09, 9.13, 9.17–9.20, 9.23
- silence, 17.159
- social or policy view of good faith, 5.04
- truth, 9.06, 9.08–9.09, 9.13–9.20, 9.31
- unfair contract terms, 6.42, 9.25
- void contracts, 9.06
- waiver, 8.56, 9.22, 17.22, 17.28–17.31
- warranties, 9.33
Beliefs see Opinions or beliefs
Beneficial interests, assignees and, 13.09
BILA (British Insurance Law Association), 5.07
Binding authorities, 1.28
Breach of contract, 1.05, 1.15, 1.16, 7.48, 8.86
Breach of duty
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.53–17.58
- agents, 7.139–7.146, 13.54–13.60, 13.65–13.67
- assignees, 13.15–13.23
- avoidance, 16.32–16.95, 16.97–16.98
- brokers, 13.75, 13.77–13.81
- burden of proof, 18.01–18.08
- causation, 3.05
- cause of action, elements of 7.13
- co-assured, 13.25–13.29
- co-insurers, 13.37, 13.41–13.48
- continuation of duty, 3.44
- damages, 16.126–16.127, 16.147, 16.159–16.166
- inducement, 14.92, 14.97
- insurer relief, elements, 7.12
- issue of policies, 12.46–12.47
- knowledge, 7.139–7.146, 13.54–13.60, 17.53, 17.56
- legal advisers, 13.95
- materiality, 14.44, 14.123
- misrepresentation, 4.29
- moral hazard, 15.45–15.48
- past, 15.45–15.48
- placing, at, 7.07–7.14
- technical breach, 1.47
- Third Parties (Rights against Insurers) Act 1930, 13.98
- waiver, 17.19–17.21, 17.32
British Insurance Law Association (BILA), 5.07
Brokers
- assured,
  - identity of the, 15.09
  - of the, 13.76–13.88
- avoidance, 13.75, 13.79, 13.82
- breach of duty, 13.75, 13.77–13.81
- capacity, 13.85
- companies, parts of, 13.82
- confidential information, disclosure of, 13.84
- conspiracy to defraud, 13.78
- constructive knowledge, doctrine of, 1.43
- course of business, 3.71, 13.83
- damages, 13.74–13.75, 13.81
- deceit, 13.78
- disclosure, independent and specific duty of, 13.49, 13.75, 13.81, 13.86–13.88
- explain the terms, duty to, 12.38–12.42
- fiduciary relationships, 2.36, 13.85
- forfeiture, 13.78
- fraud, 3.92, 7.16, 13.78, 15.123
- identity of the assured, 15.09
- information, 8.102–8.105, 13.74, 13.77, 13.79, 13.82–13.87
- Insurance Act 2015, 13.88
- insurers, of, 13.76
- intermediate, 13.82
- knowledge,
- connected to company, 7.107
  - constructive, 7.130
  - deemed, 7.133
  - imputed, 7.119–7.122
  - Insurance Act 2015, 13.88
  - Marine Insurance Act 1906, 13.83, 18.85
  - materiality, 13.74, 13.77
  - ordinary course of business, 13.56
  - placing, 13.87
- late, information provided too, 8.102–8.105, 13.82
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 13.80, 13.84–13.85
- market practices and customs, 13.86
- materiality, 13.74, 13.77, 13.79, 13.81, 13.83–13.84
- misrepresentation, 7.25–7.26, 13.81
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  mutuality, 3.92
- negotiations, 13.83
- ordinary course of business, 13.74, 13.83
- personal liability, 13.81, 13.88
- placing, 13.78–13.88
- policy, 13.87
- producing, 13.83
- reasonable care, exercise of, 13.77
- representations, 13.78–13.79
- role, 13.02, 13.86
- status of, 13.76–13.78, 13.86
- terms, duty to explain the, 12.38–12.42
- updated information, 13.82
- utmost good faith, 13.88
- waiver, 8.53
Buildings, age of, 15.56
Bundle of contracts, 13.34
Burden of proof, 18.01–18.08
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.81–17.83, 17.162–17.163, 18.05
- age, 15.54
- allegations, 18.08
- assured, 18.01–18.06
- breach of duty, 18.01–18.08
- concealment, 18.02
- conditions, 18.02
- disclosure, 18.01–18.08
- exceptions to the duty of disclosure, 18.05
- fire, 18.03
- fraud, 6.34, 7.18, 11.43, 18.02–18.04, 18.06–18.08
- inducement, 14.113–14.114, 14.116, 18.06
- insurers, 18.01–18.08
- knowledge, 18.04
- materiality, 14.08, 18.02, 18.04
- misrepresentation, 6.34, 18.04, 18.06
- non-disclosure, 18.02
- perils of the sea, 18.03
- pleadings, 18.08
- promissory estoppel, 17.162
- representations, 18.02
- waiver, 17.162–17.163, 18.02, 18.05
- warranties, 18.02
Burglary insurance, 8.25

Cancellation
- abuse of rights, 10.40
- adjustment of obligations, 3.60, 10.35–10.40
- avoidance, 16.103–16.104
- clauses, 10.35–10.40
- conduct, 17.146
- continuing cover, 3.51, 10.35, 10.37
- disclosure, 3.60
- materiality, 10.35
- misrepresentation, 10.39
- motor insurance, 6.30
- notice, 3.60, 10.36, 10.39
- performance, 10.59
- post-contractual duty, 10.35–10.40
- pre-contractual duty, 3.60
- promissory estoppel, 17.146
- remedies, 16.103–16.104
- termination, 3.51
Candour, 2.04, 4.11
Cargo
- age, 15.58
- knowledge, 8.436, 8.81, 14.56, 15.75
- related property, 15.73–15.76
Causation
- breach of duty, 3.05
- course of conduct, 3.05
- disclosure, 3.05
- inducement, 3.05, 14.91, 14.107–14.108, 14.111
- materiality, 3.05
- nature of duty of utmost good faith, 3.05
- post-contractual breaches, 3.05
- utmost good faith, 3.05
- Caveat emptor, 1.09, 2.04, 4.05, 4.11
Certainty, 17.71
Chancery, 16.04–16.05, 16.09
Change of circumstances
- adjustment of obligations, 10.34
- avoidance, 10.34
- basis clauses, 9.22
- clauses, 10.34
- directive on insurance contracts, proposal for, 5.15
- notification, 5.15
- post-contractual duty, 10.34
- renewals, 5.21
- silence, misrepresentation by, 7.45
Charterparty clauses, 8.43
Choses in action, assignment of, 13.08–13.11, 13.15, 13.18–13.19
Civil law, 1.10, 4.08
Civil proceedings see Litigation
Claims see also Exaggerated and excessive claims; Fraudulent claims
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.119
- agents, 11.95–11.98, 13.49
- assessment of claims, 12.49–12.61
- assured,
  - identity of the, 11.91–11.98
  - utmost good faith, duty of, 11.01–11.136
- avoidance, 11.29–11.30
  - payment of claims, 16.62
  - proportionality and, 11.24, 11.26
- claims control clauses, 3.78, 10.45–10.49
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  claims co-operation clauses, 10.45–10.49, 10.59
- claims handling, 10.50–10.51
- co-assured, 11.94
- compromise, 12.51
- conduct, 17.119, 17.149
- conspiracy to injure, 12.52
- Consumer Insurance (Disclosure and Representations) Act 2012, 3.74
- continuation of duty, 3.62–3.76, 11.06, 11.12–11.13, 11.31, 11.105–11.116
- corporate assured, 11.91–11.92
- deceit, 11.36–11.39
- delay, 5.21
- directive on insurance contracts, proposal for, 5.13, 5.16
- disclosure, 11.01–11.136
- documentation, 11.06
- entire, 3.64
- entire contracts, 3.64
- experience, 15.100–15.105
- extent of duty of good faith, 3.14
- facultative reinsurance contracts, 10.45
- follow the settlements, 10.52
- forfeiture, 11.118–11.119
- genuine parts of claims, 11.59, 11.62–11.63, 11.68, 11.97, 11.129, 16.49
- handling, 13.49
- implied terms, 10.51, 12.52, 12.57–12.61
- inducement, 3.73
- information, 11.04–11.06
- Insurance Act 2015, 3.74
- investigations, 3.62, 3.66, 3.76, 3.90, 11.04, 12.49–12.61
- knowledge, 13.62–13.64
- legal advisers, 13.94–13.97
- liability insurance, 10.45
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 3.14, 11.25, 11.29
- materiality, 3.71, 3.73, 11.32, 14.118–14.124
- misrepresentation, 3.67, 3.71, 11.26, 14.118, 14.121
- mutuality, 3.95
- nature of duty of good faith, 3.14, 3.62–3.76
- negotiations, 11.01–11.02
- non-disclosure, 3.66–3.67, 3.70–3.71
- notice, 3.66, 5.16, 10.45–10.49
- payment of,
- avoidance, 16.62
- conduct, 12.57, 17.119
- reservation of rights, 17.166
- performance, 10.54
- post-contractual duty of disclosure, 3.14, 3.62–3.76, 10.16–10.17, 10.44–10.53, 11.25
- pre-contractual duty of utmost good faith, 11.01, 11.26, 12.55
- presentation of claims, 3.62–3.76, 10.16–10.17, 10.44–10.53, 11.03–11.136
- promissory estoppel, 17.149
- proportionality, 11.24, 11.26
- reasonableness, 12.52
- reasonable time, 12.58, 16.30–16.31, 17.05–17.06
- reinsurance, 15.113
- repudiation, 5.21
- reservation of rights, 17.166
- restitution of proceeds of, 16.122
- scope of duty, 11.22–11.35
- Statement of General Insurance Practice, 12.56
- Statement of Long-Term Insurance Practice, 12.56
- subrogation, 3.76, 10.53
- termination, 10.69
- treatment, 12.45–12.53
- utmost good faith, 3.14, 11.01–11.136
Claims co-operation clauses, 10.45–10.49, 10.59
Classification of contracts, 2.05–2.08
Clauses see also Basis clauses; Held covered clauses; Terms; Warranties
- additional premium clauses, 3.58, 10.33
- arbitration, 17.101, 17.103, 17.107–17.108
- cancellation, 10.35–10.40
- change of circumstances, 10.34
- charterparty clauses, 8.43
- claims control clauses, 3.78
- claims co-operation clauses, 10.45–10.49, 10.59
- error and omission clauses, 16.84
- exemption, 16.83–16.89
- follow the settlements, 10.52
- fraudulent claims clauses, 11.99–11.104
- pay to be paid, severance, 10.52, 17.101, 17.103, 17.107–17.108
Club insurance, 2.37
Co-assureds, 13.25–13.32
- agents, fraud of, 11.97
- assignees, 13.07
- avoidance, 13.25, 13.28–13.29, 16.77–16.78
- bad faith, 13.30–13.31
- basis clauses, 9.17
- breach of duty, 13.25–13.29
- claims, 11.94
- composite insurance, 11.94, 13.26, 13.29
- exaggerated claims, 13.30
- fraud, 11.94, 11.97, 11.101, 13.30
- insurance contracts, 13.26
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  insurable interest, 13.07, 13.26–13.30
- insurance policies, 13.26
- joint insurance, 11.94, 13.26–13.29, 13.31
- materiality, 13.25, 13.32
- misrepresentation, 13.30
- post-contractual duty, 13.31
- pre-contractual duty, 11.94
- several, 13.27, 13.32
- utmost good faith, 13.06
- warranties, 9.17
Codification, 6.02, 6.06, 6.08–6.01, 17.40
Co-insurers
- agents, 13.37, 13.39
- avoidance, 13.44, 13.47
- breach of duty, 13.37, 13.41–13.48
- bundle of contracts, 13.37
- causes of action, 13.46
- commercial insurance, 13.36
- consumer insurance, 13.36
- customs, 13.39
- evidence, 13.37, 13.44–13.45, 18.16
- following underwriters, 13.36–13.48
- group insurance, 13.33–13.35
- household insurance, 13.36
- inducement, 13.38, 13.46
- leading underwriters, 13.36–13.48
  - judgment and skill of, 13.40, 13.45–13.46
  - misrepresentation, 13.40, 13.47
  - notice, 13.41
  - open cover, declarations on, 13.45
- lines, 13.36
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 13.43
- materiality, 13.38, 13.42–13.47
- misrepresentation, 13.40, 13.44, 13.47
- notice, 13.41
- open cover, declarations on, 13.45
- reliance, 13.42, 13.46
- risk assessment, 13.45
- subscribing to risks, 13.36–13.37
- tortious liability, 13.41
- utmost good faith, 13.06
Commercial contracts
- caveat emptor, 1.09
- co-insurers, 13.36
- concealment, 2.04
- construction, 1.11
- disclosure, 1.31
- misrepresentation, 1.08, 1.09
- parties, responsibility on, 1.07
- public policy, 3.41
- regulation, 3.41
- uberrimae fidei, 1.07, 1.31
Commercial law, 4.05–4.06
Commission, disclosure of, 8.72
Common law
- application of duty of good faith, 1.36
- assignees, 13.15, 13.22
- avoidance, 4.57, 16.34, 16.49–16.50, 16.64, 16.90, 16.92–16.93
- Chancery, 16.04–16.05, 16.09
- codification of, 6.02, 6.06, 6.08–6.10
- consideration, 1.11
- courts, 16.04
- damages, 16.126–16.127, 16.147, 16.159, 16.162, 16.164
- disclosure, 2.07
- equity, 4.15, 4.62, 16.05–16.12
- explain the terms, duty to, 12.39, 12.41
- forfeiture, 16.115–16.116
- fraud, 4.18–4.24, 16.13, 16.49
- Judicature Acts, 16.09
- law merchant, 4.03–4.05, 4.11–4.14, 4.31
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 6.02, 6.06, 6.08–6.01
- materiality, 14.10–14.16
- misrepresentation, 4.25, 4.28
- mistake, 4.35
- negligent misrepresentation, 16.11
- negotiations, 1.10
- non-disclosure, 4.37, 4.39–4.40, 4.43, 4.46
- procedure, 16.09
- remedies, 4.57, 4.58, 16.03–16.13
- source of duty of utmost good faith, 4.02–4.05, 4.08, 4.13–4.15, 4.31, 4.62
- terms, duty to explain the, 12.39, 12.41
- unconscionability, 17.10
- utmost good faith, 4.02–4.05, 4.08, 4.13–4.15, 4.31, 4.62, 10.04
Communications see Rumours, allegations, communications and intelligence
Companies
- agents, fraud of, 11.95
- alter egos, 11.95
- attribution, rules of, 11.92–11.93
- brokers, 13.82
- claims, 11.91–11.92
- departments of, 8.14, 8.32, 8.47
- directing mind and will, 7.107, 7.118, 11.91–11.92, 13.56, 13.63
- directors, 7.117–7.118
- fraud, 11.9–11.92, 11.95
- history, insurance, 15.102
- knowledge,
  - departments of, 8.14, 8.32, 8.47
  - directing mind and will, 7.107, 7.118, 11.91–11.92, 13.56, 13.63
  - relevant information, 8.48
- parts of, 8.14, 8.32, 13.82
- predecessor, 15.102
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  shares publicly offered, contracts for purchase of, 2.31–2.32
- vicarious liability, 11.92
Composite insurance, 7.133, 11.94, 11.101, 13.26, 13.29, 16.78
Compromise
- avoidance, 3.76, 12.51
- claims, 12.51
- fraudulent claims, 3.76, 12.51
- identification of insurance contracts, 1.31
- misrepresentation, 1.31, 3.76
- mistake of law, 1.31
- utmost good faith, 1.31
Concealment
- agents, 7.140
- avoidance, 16.38
- burden of proof, 18.02
- commercial contracts, 2.04
- deceit, 11.88
- fraud, 3.98, 7.12, 11.87–11.89, 16.38
- guarantees or surety contracts, 2.12
- inducement, 1.35, 14.93–14.98, 14.108
- knowledge, 7.141
- materiality, 11.88, 14.73, 14.119, 14.131
- misrepresentation, 7.24
- placing, 3.06–3.07
- pre-contractual duty, 11.88–11.89
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.30
- technical, 3.33
- utmost good faith, 2.04
Conditions
- burden of proof, 18.02
- implied, 4.32–4.35
- law reform, 5.17
- motor insurance, 6.27
- precedent, 4.32–4.35
- warranties, 8.91
Conduct
- affirm or avoid, election to, claims, payment of, 12.57, 17.119
  - contractual rights, 17.100–17.109
  - defence, reliance on a policy, 17.117
  - policies, issue of, 17.110–17.114
  - premiums, acceptance of, 17.115–17.116
  - types of, 16.62
  - unequivocal, 17.95–17.119
  - variation, 17.118
  - waiver, 17.79, 17.96
  - words, 17.54
- agents, 17.101
- avoidance, 16.60, 16.62
- cancellation provisions, 17.146
- causation, 3.05
- claims, payment of, 12.57, 17.119, 17.147
- contractual rights, 17.100–17.109
- course of, 3.05
- defence, reliance on a policy, 17.117
- delay, 17.99, 17.150–17.161
- directive on insurance contracts, proposal for, 5.13
- disclosure, 2.04
- examples of unequivocal, 17.99
- future, promises of, 7.70–7.75
- inactivity, 17.99, 17.130, 17.132, 17.150–17.161
- information, request for further, 17.100
- inspection, 17.101, 17.105–17.106
- intention, 7.70, 7.72–7.74
- meaning of good faith, 1.14
- payment of claims, 12.57, 17.119, 17.149
- policies, issue of, 17.110–17.114
- premiums, acceptance of, 17.115–17.116
- promissory estoppel, 17.130, 17.132, 17.141–17.161
- reasonableness, 17.98
- records, 17.101
- reliance, 17.139
- renewals, 17.114
- replacement policies, 17.113
- representations, implied, 7.31, 7.32
- reservation of rights, 17.168
- security measures, advice on, 17.148
- silence, 17.99, 17.130, 17.132, 17.150–17.161
- unequivocal, 17.95–17.119, 17.126, 17.130, 17.141–17.161
- variation, 17.118
- waiver, 17.48–17.51, 17.96
- wilful misconduct, 11.95, 13.64
- words, 17.96
Confidentiality
- agents, 8.97
- brokers, 13.84
- conflicting duties, 8.93–8.98
- disclosure, exceptions to, 8.83–8.98
- further information, 8.96
- Insurance Act 2015, 8.97
- legislation, 6.47
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 8.97
- materiality, 8.95, 8.97
- official secrets, 6.47, 8.98
- statutory duty, 8.98
- waiver, 8.95
Conflicting duties, 8.93–8.98
Conflicts of interest, 2.35
Conjecture, 7.65–7.66
Consensus ad idem, 1.10
Consideration
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.03, 17.54
- common law, 1.10
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  formation of contract, 1.11, 10.10
- misrepresentation, 4.26
- total failure of, 4.26, 4.51
Conspiracy
- defraud, to, 13.78
- injure, to, 12.52
Consumer contracts, 2.32
Consumer insurance
- agents, 13.93
- application of the duty of utmost good faith, 1.33, 1.35, 1.342–1.43
- avoidance, 5.27–5.28
- basis clauses, 5.28, 9.15
- co-insurers, 13.36
- constructive knowledge, doctrine of, 1.43
- Consumer Insurance (Disclosure and Representation) Bill, 5.28
- consumers, 6.12
contracting out, 6.14, 12.60
- explain the terms, duty to, 12.39
- disclosure, 6.13
- fraudulent claims clauses, 11.104
- information, 6.13
- insurer claiming relief, elements, 7.12
- Law Commission, 1.38, 5.28, 5.37–5.42
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 5.28
- materiality, 1.38, 1.41–1.43
- misrepresentation, 1.42, 5.28
- public policy, 3.41
- qualifying misrepresentations, 6.13
- recent reform, 5.42
- regulation, 3.41
- terms, duty to explain the, 12.39
- unfair contract terms, 6.54–6.57, 9.25, 11.104
- utmost good faith, 6.13
- waiver, 8.60
Consumer Insurance (Disclosure and Representations) Act2012, 6.04, 6.12–6.14
- agents, 13.93
- application, 1.22, 6.12
- basis clauses, 9.27–9.33
- prohibition, 9.28–9.29
- consumers, definition 6.12
- contracting out, 6.14, 12.60
- contractual avoidance, 16.82
- inducement, 14.105
- introduction, 1.19
- modification of duty of disclosure, 9.03
- pre-contract and pre-variation information, 6.13
- pre-contractual disclosure, 1.20
- qualifying duty of utmost good faith, 1.06, 1.12, 1.20, 1.33, 6.13
- qualifying misrepresentations, 6.13
- utmost good faith, 10.02
- variation, 16.76
Continental jurisdictions, 1.10
Continuation of the duty, 3.43–3.83
- Australian Law Reform Commission, 5.26
- avoidance, 3.44, 11.108, 11.113
- breach of duty, 3.44
- cancellation, 3.51
- causes of action, 3.44
- claims, 3.62–3.76, 11.06, 11.12–11.13, 11.31, 11.105–11.116
- confirmation, 3.28
- disclosure, 3.43–3.50
- extension, 3.28
- fairness, 3.30
- formation of contract, 10.12
- fraud, 11.105–11.116
- guarantees or surety contracts, 2.21
- inducement, 3.44
- issue of policies, 12.45
- liability, establishment of, 11.106
- litigation, commencement of, 11.108–11.110
- marine insurance, 11.113
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 11.108, 11.110
- negotiations, 11.108
- placing, 3.44–3.52, 12.20
- post-contractual duty of good faith, 3.53–3.79, 10.13, 10.15
- pre-contractual duty of good faith, 3.44, 11.108
- rejection of claims, 11.108, 11.111
- renewal, 3.28
- revival, 3.28
- ship’s papers, discovery of, 11.109–11.110, 11.113
- termination, 3.45–3.52, 3.60–3.83
- warranties, 8.86, 9.20
Contracts see also Breach of contract; Formation of contract; Unfair contract terms
- classification of, 2.05–2.08
- collateral, 4.45, 16.137
  - Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999, 13.03
- definition of insurance contract, 1.22
- general obligation in all contracts, 1.03
- guarantees or surety contracts, 1.22, 1.30 2.09–2.21
- indemnities, 1.22
- interpretation, 1.11
- materiality, 15.129
- meaning of good faith, 1.15, 1.16
- other arrangements and, 15.129
- privity of contract, 13.03, 13.98–13.100
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  remedies, 11.133–11.136
- shares publicly offered, contracts for purchase of, 2.31–2.32
- spouses, between, 2.25–2.28
- subject-matter, 15.129
- utmost good faith, 1.06, 11.133–11.136
Contribution, 15.129
Convictions see Previous convictions
Course of business see Ordinary course of business
Courts of Chancery, 4.04
Credit history, disclosure of, 2.11–2.12
Criminal offences see also Fraud; Rehabilitation of offenders
- accounts, 6.50
- deception, 6.49
- evidence, 15.44
- false or misleading statements, 6.50–6.52
- legislation, 6.48–6.53
- materiality, 6.48
- moral hazard, 15.41, 15.45–15.46
- motor insurance, 6.17, 6.52
- seriousness, 15.44
- UK, in the, 6.51
- withdrawal of charges, 15.44
Custom
- brokers, 13.86
- co-insurers, 13.39
- disclosure, waiver of, 8.83
- experts, 18.13
- law merchant, 4.03, 4.05, 4.11, 4.13
- materiality, 8.83
- nature of duty of utmost good faith, 3.20
- source of duty of utmost good faith, 4.08
- trade usage, 18.13
- waiver, 8.83

Damages, 16.125–16.166
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.01
- agents, 13.65
- assumption of responsibility, voluntary, 16.522
- avoidance, 4.25, 6.36, 16.12–16.128, 16.136–16.145, 16.159–16.166
- basis clause, 17.01
- breach of contract, 16.142–16.145, 16.160, 16.163–16.166
- breach of duty, 16.126–16.127, 16.147, 16.159–16.166
- brokers, 13.74–13.75, 13.81
- claims co-operation clause, 10.46–10.47
- common law, 4.28, 16.11, 16.126–16.127, 16.147, 16.156, 16.159, 16.162, 16.164
- deceit, 4.53, 16.67, 16.127–16.131, 16.144, 16.147, 16.162
- disclosure, 16.148–16.158
- discretion, 16.139–16.140
- duress, 16.164
- duty of care, 16.148–16.158
- economic loss, 16.152, 16.155
- equity, 16.146–16.147, 16.159, 16.164
- fiduciary duties, 16.147
- foreseeability, 16.150–16.152, 16.156
- forfeiture, 16.111
- fraud,
  - claims, 3.66, 10.50, 11.134–11.136, 16.127–16.131, 16.147
  - duty of care, 16.151
  - misrepresentation, 7.15, 12.07, 16.127–16.131, 16.141, 16.156
  - moral, 16.129
  - placing, 12.07
- hardship, 16.164
- implied terms, 11.134, 16.143–16.144
- inducement, 16.129, 16.136, 16.164
- injunctions, 16.146
- Insurance Ombudsman, 5.23
- jurisdiction, 16.146
- late payment, damages for, 5.29–5.36, 12.53
- Law Commission, 5.29–5.36, 12.53
- law merchant, 16.125
- marine insurance, 16.164
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 16.152
- materiality, 16.127, 16.157
- measure of, 16.134, 16.157
- misrepresentation, 6.34–6.38
  - avoidance, 4.25, 16.44
  - breach of contract, 16.160
  - common law, 4.28, 16.11
  - fraudulent, 16.127–16.131, 16.141, 16.156
  - innocent, 16.137
  - measure of damages, 16.134
  - Misrepresentation Act 1967, 16.136–16.141, 16.148
- negligent, 16.132–16.135, 16.153, 16.156
- placing, 12.07
- negligence, 16.132–16.135, 16.148–16.149, 16.153, 16.156
- negligent misrepresentation, 16.76, 16.132–16.135, 16.153, 16.156
- non-disclosure, 4.44–4.48
- omissions, 16.155
- opinions, 7.54
- partnership agreements, 2.23
- placing, 12.07
- post-contractual duty, 16.159, 16.165
- pre-contractual duty, 16.156
- premiums, recovery of, 16.161
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  proximity, 16.150
- reasonableness, 16.150
- reliance, 16.150
- repudiation, 12.51
- restitution, 16.147, 16.161–16.162, 16.166
- specific performance, 16.146
- termination, 16.96
- terms, 16.143–16.144
- time limits, 17.164
- tortious liability, 16.153–16.154, 16.163
- trust, breach of, 16.147
- unconscionability, 17.11
- undue influence, 16.164
- utmost good faith, 16.125–16.126
Data protection, 6.45, 12.21
Databases
- enquiries, 12.26, 12.29
- knowledge, 7.133, 8.37
De minimis rule, 7.95
Debt, security for, 13.08, 13.13
Deceit
- brokers, 13.78
- concealment, 11.87
- damages, 4.53, 16.67, 16.127–16.131, 16.144, 16.147, 16.162
- fraud, 4.20–4.21, 4.23, 11.36–11.39
- misrepresentation, 6.34, 6.36, 7.35
- placing, 7.09
- silence, 7.35
Declarations
- application of duty of good faith, 1.34
- avoidance, 6.27, 6.30
- basis clauses, 9.06, 9.17
- directive on insurance contracts, proposal for, 5.13
- discretion to accept, 1.24
- floating policies, 1.53, 3.78
- fraud, 3.78
- future declarations, 1.24
- insurance contracts, 1.51
- open cover, 1.24, 1.50–1.52, 1.54, 3.26, 3.78
- performance, 10.58
- reinsurance treaties, 1.50–1.52, 1.54
- termination, 3.50
- value, of, 1.53
- waiver, 8.62
Defective policies, 13.11, 13.20
Definition of good faith, 1.13–1.18
Delay, silence or inactivity
- affirm or avoid, election to, 16.61, 17.155–17.157
- avoidance, 16.61, 17.150, 17.153, 17.155–17.157
- basis clause, 17.159
- claims, 5.21
- conduct, 17.99, 17.130, 17.132, 17.105–17.161
- detrimental reliance, 17.155
- laches, 16.61, 16.92, 16.94, 17.158–17.159, 17.164
- late payment of claims, 1.38, 3.95, 5.29–5.36, 12.61
- promissory estoppel, 17.150–17.161
- reliance, 17.155, 17.159–17.160
- repudiation, 5.21
- third parties, 17.105
- waiver, 17.154
- warranties, breach of, 8.91, 17.153–17.154, 17.159
Delivery up, 16.103–16.104
Descriptive of risk, warranties, 8.85, 9.10–9.12
Deterioration, 15.56
Detriment
- promissory estoppel, 17.139–17.140
- reliance, 17.155
Deviation, 8.91, 15.69, 15.80
Devices see Fraudulent devices
Diminution of risk
- evidence, 8.09–8.10
- expert evidence, 8.09–8.10
- Insurance Act 2015, 8.09
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 8.09
- materiality, 8.08–8.09, 14.69, 14.79
- placing, 8.06–8.11
- security arrangements, 8.11
Directive on insurance contracts (1979), proposal for, 5.12–5.16
- amendments, 5.14
- change in circumstances, notification of, 5.15
- claims, 5.13, 5.16
- conduct of policyholders, 5.13
- declarations, 5.13
- disclosure, 5.14
- exclusions, 5.12
- notification, duty of, 5.15–5.16
- placing, disclosure at time of, 5.14
- pre-contractual duty of disclosure, 5.15
- premiums, return of, 5.14
- scope, 5.12
- termination, 5.14
Directors, 2.31, 7.117–7.118
Disability discrimination, 6.44, 8.100
Disclosure and non-disclosure see also Breach of duty; Continuation of the duty; Exceptions to disclosure; Materiality
- abuse of rights, 3.96–3.97
- additional premium clauses, 3.58
- adequate, 7.22
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  affirm or avoid, election to, 17.61
- allegations, 7.81–7.85
- assignment, 4.37, 4.45, 13.11, 13.13
- avoidance, 3.16, 4.34, 4.36, 4.42, 16.37, 16.40, 16.28, 16.53
- binding authority, 1.28
- brokers, independent and specific duty of, 13.46, 13.75, 13.81, 13.86
- burden of proof, 18.01–18.08
- cancellation, 3.29, 3.60
- causation, 3.05
- claims, 3.66–3.67, 3.70–3.71, 11.01–11.136
- commercial contracts, 1.31
- commission, 8.72
- common law, 2.07, 4.37, 4.39–4.40, 4.43, 4.46
- communications, 7.81–7.85
- compromise of claims, 1.31
- concealment, 2.04
- conditions precedent, implied, 4.32–4.35
- conduct, 2.04
- confidentiality, 8.93–8.98
- continuation of duty, 3.43–3.52
- contracts, extension to all, 1.02
- credit history, 2.11–2.12
- damages, 4.44–4.48, 16.148–16.158
- degrees of, 3.28, 3.80
- directive on insurance contracts, proposal for, 5.13–5.14
- equity, 4.31, 4.43
- facts, placing and, 7.49–7.56
- fair presentation of, 6.18, 7.05–7.06, 7.23, 8.52, 8.68
- family members, 2.25
- fiduciaries, 2.06, 2.33–2.37
- floating policies, 3.78
- forfeiture, 16.105
- fraud, 3.96–3.101, 4.18, 4.30, 4.36, 4.38, 4.45, 11.15, 12.13
- full disclosure, 7.01–7.30
  - abuse of rights, 3.95–3.96
  - cancellation, 3.29
  - fraud, 3.101
  - purpose of duty and, 3.34, 3.38–3.42
  - renewals, 3.61
  - salvage, 2.30
  - spouses, contracts between, 2.25
  - utmost good faith, 2.05–2.06
- guarantees or surety contracts, 1.30, 2.09–2.21
- health, 15.18–15.20
- held covered clauses, 3.58
- identification of insurance contracts, 1.30–1.32
- identification of property, 15.51
- imperfect disclosure, 1.35
- implied terms, 4.32–4.34, 4.38, 4.43, 4.46–4.48
- inducement, 14.95–14.98, 14.101–14.109
- Insurance Act 2015, 3.16
- insurance policies, existence of other, 15.127
- intelligence, 7.81–7.85
- knowledge, 5.39–5.40 7.68–7.146, 8.12–8.48
- Law Commission, 5.27–5.28
- law merchant, 4.40
- legal advisers, 13.96–13.97
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 6.07, 8.01–8.05
- materiality, 1.47, 4.30, 4.32–4.33, 14.01–14.132
- misrepresentation, 2.04, 4.38, 4.43, 4.47–4.48, 6.37–6.38, 7.03, 7.22–7.48, 12.05–12.08
- mistake at common law, mutual, 4.35
- motor insurance, 6.28–6.30, 13.101
- mutuality, 3.93
- natural law, 4.40
- negotiations, 2.04
- open cover, 1.24, 1.52, 1.54
- opinions, 7.50–7.56
- partnership agreements, 2.22–2.23
- placing, 3.06–3.13
  - claims, 3.62
  - facts, 7.49–7.85
  - fraud, 12.13
  - full disclosure, 7.01–7.146
  - knowledge, 7.98–7.146
  - materiality, 1.48, 3.22
  - misrepresentation, 7.03, 7.22–7.48, 12.05–12.08
  - modification of duty, 9.01–9.44
  - premiums, rating and fixing, 3.17
- misrepresentation and, 7.03, 7.22–7.48
- post-contractual duty, 4.47–4.49
- pre-contractual duty, 4.30, 4.43, 4.47–4.49
- premiums, rating and fixing, 3.17
- promissory terms, 4.36
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.18–14.57
- questions, 9.44
- reinsurance, 1.29, 1.54
- renewals, 3.61, 5.21, 10.41
- representations
  - implied, 7.37–7.45
  - law, of, 7.76
- repudiation, 5.21
- rumours, 7.81–7.85
- salvage, 2.30
- shares publicly offered, contracts for purchase of, 2.31–2.32
- silence, 7.37–7.45
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  social or policy view of good faith, 5.01–5.07
- source of duty of utmost good faith, 4.30–4.50
- spouses, contracts between, 2.25
- strict duty, 3.22
- termination, 3.48, 3.50–3.52, 3.81
- unusual features, 2.18
- utmost good faith, 2.03–2.07
- variations, 10.22, 10.24
- waiver, 17.30
- warranties, 4.36
Discovery
- avoidance, 1.45
- marine insurance, 1.44–1.46
- reasonable endeavours, 1.44
- ship’s papers, 1.46, 10.07, 11.109–11.110, 11.113
- third parties, 1.44–1.47
Discrimination
- disability discrimination, 6.44, 8.100
- justification, 6.44
- legislation, 6.43–6.44, 8.100
- materiality, 15.14
- placing, 8.100
- rating risks, 8.100
- race discrimination, 6.44, 8.100, 15.14
- sex discrimination, 6.44, 8.100
Dishonesty see also Fraud
- allegations, 7.84
- claims co-operation clause, 10.48
- communications, 7.84
- follow the settlements, 10.48
- guarantees or surety contracts, 2.15
- intelligence, 7.84
  - knowledge, 7.105
- misrepresentation, 7.24
- moral hazard, 15.26–15.27, 15.30–15.44, 15.49
- opinions, 7.52
- placing, 7.07
- previous convictions, 15.30–15.38
- purpose of duty of good faith, 3.36, 3.39
- rumours, 7.84
Double insurance, 15.126
Due diligence, 2.18, 3.42, 8.39
Duration of the duty see Continuation of the duty
Duress, 12.39, 16.164

Earlier policies or contracts, 16.71
EClaw see EU law
Economic loss, 16.152, 16.155
Election see Affirm or avoid, election to
Electronic communications, 8.20
Endorsements, 3.56, 10.23, 16.62, 17.117–17.118
Enquiries, 3.35, 12.24–12.27 see also Questions
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.58–17.59, 17.62, 17.64
- basis clauses, 9.24
- course of business, 3.17, 7.131, 12.20, 12.24, 12.30
- databases, 12.26, 12.29
- due diligence, 8.39
- identification of property, 15.52
- inducement, 14.117
- Internet, 12.26
- knowledge,
  - due diligence, 8.39
  - insurers, by, 8.32,
  - Lloyd’s, 12.30
  - market information, 12.26, 12.32
  - ordinary course of business, 3.17, 7.131
  - records, 12.31
  - seaworthiness, 8.77
  - waiver, 8.77–8.78, 8.81
- Law Commission, 5.18
- Lloyd’s Casualty List, 12.26, 12.30
- Lloyd’s List, 12.26, 12.27, 12.30
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 12.32
- market information, 12.26, 12.32
- materiality, 12.24, 12.28
- opinions, 7.53, 12.23
- ordinary course of business, 3.17, 7.131, 12.25, 12.30, 12.32
- placing, 8.04–8.05
- public domain, information in the, 12.29
- reasonableness, 12.25
- records, 12.31
- reservation of rights, 17.166
- risk assessment, 12.24–12.37
- seaworthiness, 8.77
- waiver, 8.51, 8.65, 8.69–8.74, 8.78–8.79, 8.81
- warranties, 8.89, 8.91
Entire contracts, 3.64, 3.85, 11.100, 11.102
Equities, assignees subject to, 13.08–13.20, 13.24
Equity
- account of profits, 16.11
- avoidance, 4.57–4.60, 16.33–16.34, 16.64, 16.90, 16.92–16.95
- Chancery, 16.09
- common law, 4.14, 4.62, 16.07–16.12
- damages, 16.146–16.147, 16.159, 16.164
- estoppel, 17.120
- fraud, 4.18, 4.20–4.22
- Judicature Acts, 16.09
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  jurisdiction, 16.06, 16.13
- laches, 17.159
- law merchant, 4.05, 4.15
- misrepresentation, 4.25, 4.27–4.28
- non-disclosure, 4.31, 4.43
- precedent, 16.10
- procedure, 16.09
- remedies, 4.31, 4.54–4.60, 16.09–16.13
- source of duty of utmost good faith, 4.15, 4.62
- unconscionability, 17.10–17.13
Error and omission clauses, 16.84
Estoppel see also Promissory estoppel
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.67, 17.86–17.87, 17.97
- avoidance, 16.61
- caveat emptor, 1.09
- equitable, 17.120
- representation, by, 17.35–17.38, 17.41
- waiver, 8.50–8.50, 17.36–17.38, 17.41
EU law
- Directive on insurance contracts (1979), proposal for, 5.12–5.16
- non-disclosure, 4.50
- proportionality, 5.08
- self-incrimination, 8.100
- unfair contract terms, 6.354 6.57
Evidence, 18.01–18.16 see also Experts
- best evidence, 1.48
- burden of proof, 18.01–18.08
- criminal charges, 15.44
- diminution of risk, 8.09–8.10
- documentary, 18.15
- inducement, 14.114–14.116, 18.16
- insurers, 13.37, 13.44–13.45, 18.16
- issue of policies, 12.40
- materiality, 18.15
- moral hazard, 15.40
- records, 18.15
- representations, effect of, 18.16
- standard of proof, 18.09
- testimony of parties, 18.15–18.16
Exaggerated and excessive claims, 3.63–3.64
- avoidance, 11.63, 16.49
- co-assured, 13.30
- degree of exaggeration, 11.61–11.64
- formation of contract, 11.120
- fraudulent claims, 11.38, 11.44, 11.54–11.64
- fraudulent claims clauses, 11.102
- genuine elements of claims, 11.59, 11.63
- ‘horse trading’, 11.64
- initially honest claims, 11.84–11.86
- knowledge, 11.45
- misrepresentation, 11.55–11.57
- negotiations, 11.57, 11.64
- pre-contractual misrepresentation, 11.56
- quantum of claim, 11.54–11.55
- spin, 11.64
- substantial fraud, 11.60–11.64
- types, 11.58
Examples of material facts see Material facts, examples of
Exceptions to disclosure
- burden of proof, 18.05
- confidentiality, 8.93–8.98
- conflicting duties, 8.93–8.98
- diminution of risk, 8.06–8.11
- discrimination, 8.100
- enquiries, 8.04–8.05
- fraud, 7.16–7.17
- inducement, 8.04
- knowledge, 8.01, 8.12–8.48
- late, information received too, 8.102–8.105,
- law reform, 5.17
- list of, 8.03
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 8.01–8.05
- materiality, 8.01–8.04
- misrepresentation, 8.04–8.05
- motor insurance, 6.30
- placing, 8.01–8.105
- rehabilitation of offenders, 8.99
- self-incrimination, privilege against, 8.100
- waiver, 8.49–8.83
- warranties, 8.04, 8.84–8.92
Excess of loss reinsurance, 15.119
Excessive claims see Exaggerated and excessive claims
Exemption clauses
- avoidance, 16.83–16.89
- burden of proof, 16.89
- error and omission clauses, 16.84
- fraud, 16.84–16.86, 16.89
- gains, 16.89
- materiality, 16.83–16.84
- misrepresentation, 16.83–16.89
- unfair contract terms, reasonableness and, 16.87
- warranties, 16.88
Experts, 18.10–18.14
- course of business, 18.13
- custom, 18.13
- diminution of risk, 8.09–8.10
- impartiality, 18.11
- investigations, 12.50
- juries, 18.12
- knowledge, 18.13
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 18.13
- market practice, 18.13–18.14
- materiality, 15.133, 18.10, 18.12–18.14
- objectivity, 18.10
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  opinions, 18.11
- prudent underwriters, 14.23, 18.11
- reasonableness, 18.10
- trade usage, 18.13
- waiver, 18.14
- warranties, 9.16
Explanations, 12.38–12.42
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.65
- brokers, 12.38, 12.42
- common law, 12.37, 12.39
- consumers, 12.39
- duress, 12.39
- facts, 17.65
- hardship, 12.40
- insurers, 12.38–12.42
- knowledge, 17.65
- materiality, 12.41
- terms, duty to explain, 12.38–12.42
- undue influence, 12.39
- unfair contract terms, 12.39
Extent of duty of good faith, 3.14

Facts see also Material facts, examples of
- accuracy, 9.16
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.57–17.66, 17.71, 17.74–17.75, 17.80
- allegations, 7.81–7.85
- assumptions on, incorrect, 3.18
- communications, 7.81–7.85
- conduct, promises of future, 7.70–7.75
- explanations, 17.65
- fears, 7.64–7.69
- inferences, 7.64–7.69
- intelligence, 7.81–7.85
- intention, 7.70–7.75
- knowledge,
  - affirm or avoid, election to, 17.57–17.66, 17.71, 17.74–17.75, 17.80
  - knowledge, 17.57–17.66, 17.71, 17.74–17.75, 17.80
  - promissory estoppel, 17.124–17.129
- law, representations of, 7.76–7.76
- new, discovery of, 7.121
- opinions or beliefs, statements of, 7.50–7.56
- placing, 7.49–7.56
- promissory estoppel, 17.124–17.129
- representations, 7.76–7.80
- rumours, 7.81–7.85
- speculations, 7.64–7.69
Facultative reinsurance, 10.45, 15.119
False or misleading representations
- ambiguity, 7.89, 7.90
- basis clauses, 9.06
- causes of action, 7.86
- clear, natural and ordinary meaning, 7.89, 7.90
- criminal offences, 6.51–6.52
- de minimis rule, 7.95
- existence of representation, 7.90
- false impressions, 7.86, 7.90
- incomplete representations, 7.90
- inducement, 1.09
- industry or market practice, 7.90
- interpretation, 7.90
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 7.94
- materiality, 7.93–7.96
- meaning of representation, 7.88–7.91
- misrepresentation, 7.86, 7.93, 7.97
- motor insurance, 6.17, 7.89
- objectivity, 7.87
- proof, 7.92
- questions put to the assured, meaning of, 7.88–7.89
- reasonableness, 7.89, 7.90
- substantial truth, 7.93, 7.59–7.96
- trivial falsity, 7.93, 7.95
- vagueness or obscurity, 7.89, 7.90
- variance from the truth, 7.92–7.96
Family members
- disclosure, duty of full, 2.25
- family provision, 2.27
- intention to create legal relations, 2.26
- materiality, 2.26
- settlements between, 2.25–2.28
Fears, 7.64–7.69
Fidelity policies, 2.20, 3.51
Fiduciaries
- advice, 2.36
- associations, 2.37
- brokers, 2.36, 13.85
- categories of, 2.35
- club insurance, 2.37
- conflicts of interest, 2.34
- damages, 16.147
- disclosure by, 2.06, 2.25–2.28
- mutual insurance, 2.37
- opinions, 2.36
- partnership agreements, 2.22–2.23
- professional advice, 2.36
- shares publicly offered, contracts for purchase of, 2.31
- utmost good faith, 2.06, 2.34–2.37
Financial history and practices
- fraud, 15.24
- knowledge, 15.24
- materiality of, 15.23–15.24
- records, 15.23
- security devices, 15.23
Financial Ombudsman Service, 5.23
Fire insurance
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  application of duty of good faith, 1.33
- burden of proof, 18.03
- history, insurance, 15.102
- waiver, 8.58
Floating policies
- application of duty of good faith, 1.34
- declarations, 1.53, 3.78
- disclosure, 3.78
- fraud, 3.78
- identification of property, 15.55
- marine insurance, 1.53
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 6.07
- obligatory, as being, 1.53
- performance, 10.58
- termination, 3.49
- time of making, 1.49, 1.53
- value, declarations of, 1.53
Follow the settlements clauses, 10.52
Following underwriters, 13.36–13.48
Foreign law, 7.80, 15.121
Foreseeability, 16.150–16.152, 16.158
Forfeiture, 16.105–16.121
- arbitration agreements, 17.103
- avoidance, 16.113–16.118
  - contractual right, 16.105–16.107
  - fraud, 11.121, 11.126–11.129, 16.48, 16.55
  - relief, against, 16.120
- brokers, 13.78
- claims, 11.118–11.119
- common law, 16.115–16.116
- consumer contracts, 16.107
- contractual right, absence of express, 16.108–16.119
- damages, 16.111
- entire contracts, 11.100, 11.102
- fraudulent claims, 11.08, 11.100, 11.102, 11.121, 11.126–11.129 16.48, 16.55, 16.105–16.121
- fraudulent devices, 11.73
- genuine part of claim, 11.129
- implied terms, 16.114
- jurisdiction, 16.122,
- marine insurance, 16.113
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 16.113
- materiality, 14.122
- meaning, 11.129
- misrepresentation, 16.105, 16.1124, 16.114
- non-consumer contracts, 16.107
- non-disclosure, 16.105
- penalties, 16.106
- placing, 16.118
- post-contractual duty, 16.118
- premiums, 16.106
- relief against forfeiture, 16.120–16.121
- remedies, 11.118–11.119, 11.1261–11.129
- repudiation, 16.111
- termination, 16.101
- transparency requirements, 16.107
- utmost good faith, 11.118–11.119, 11.126–11.129
- void contracts, 11.128, 16.106
Formation of contract
- acceptance, 10.10, 10.12
- benefit, of all, 11.126–11.12914
- consideration, 1.11, 10.10
- continuing duty, 10.12
- exaggerated claims, 11.126
- insurance policies, before issuing of, 10.13
- intention to create legal relations, 1.11, 10.10
- life insurance, 10.12
- Lloyd’s, 10.11
- materiality, 10.09, 10.12, 10.26
- misrepresentation, 10.09
- negotiations, 10.09–10.10
- non-consumer contracts, 10.26
- offer, 10.10
- post-contractual duty, 10.08–10.14
- premiums, acceptance of, 10.12
- proposal forms, 10.11
- relevance to formation, 1.06
- slips, initialling, 10.11, 10.14
- utmost good faith, 10.09
- variation of contracts, 10.09, 10.14
Fraud, 3.14, 3.15, 3.64–3.72, 10.49 see also Agents, fraud of; Fraud, materiality and; Fraudulent claims; Fraudulent devices
- abuse of rights, 3.96–3.97
- additional premium clauses, 11.66–11.68
- advice, 11.86
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.01, 17.59, 17.66, 17.93, 17.107
- assignees, 13.11
- assured, identity of, 15.06
- avoidance, 3.68, 3.71, 3.76, 3.101–3.102, 16.64–16.65
- bad faith, 3.96
- breach of duty, 4.29
- brokers, 3.92, 7.16, 13.78, 15.123
- burden of proof, 6.34, 7.18, 18.02–18.04, 18.06–18.08
- claims co-operation clause, 10.47
- co-assured, 13.30
- common law, 4.18–4.24, 16.13
- compromise, 3.76
- concealment, 3.98, 7.17
- conspiracy to defraud, 13.78
- constructive, 4.19, 4.22
- course of business, 13.56
- Page 708
  
  criminal offences, 6.52
- damages,
  - claims, 3.66, 10.50, 11.134–11.136, 16.127–16.131, 16.147
  - duty of care, 16.151
  - misrepresentation, 7.15, 12.7, 16.127–16.131, 16.141, 16.156
  - moral, 16.129
  - placing, 12.07
- deceit, 4.20–4.21, 4.23
- deemed, 71.133
- disclosure, 3.96–3.101
- duty of care, 16.151
- engine of fraud, good faith as an, 3.96–3.103
- equity, 4.18–4.22
- exceptions, 7.16–7.17
- exemption clauses, 16.84–16.86
- financial history and practices, 15.24
- floating policies, declarations and, 3.78
- forfeiture, 16.105–16.121
- hardship, 3.99
- identity of the assured, 15.06
- inducement, 3.73, 7.17–7.18, 14.110, 14.113
- intention, 4.20
- jurisdiction, 4.19, 4.22,
- knowledge, 7.98–7.146 13.53–13.60, 15.1123
- law merchant, 4.11
- legal advisers, 13.97
- liability insurers, control of proceedings and, 3.78
- marine insurance, 7.16, 7.18
- misrepresentation, 7.15–7.21
  - avoidance, 16.64–16.65
  - breach of duty, 4.29
  - burden of proof, 6.34
  - co-assured, 13.30
  - damages, 16.127–16.131, 16.141, 16.156
  - fraudulent, 7.02, 7.15–7.21, 12.07–12.08, 13.30
  - inducement, 14.17, 14.122
  - knowledge, 7.98, 7.107
  - non-disclosure, 3.99, 4.18
  - placing, 7.02, 7.15–7.21, 12.07–12.08
  - remedies, 4.52–4.54, 4.56, 16.64–16.65
- moral, 16.129
- moral hazard, 15.26–15.28
- mutuality, 3.92, 3.95
- non-disclosure, 3.99, 4.18, 4.30, 4.36, 4.38, 4.45
- notice provisions, 3.78
- open cover, declarations and, 3.78
- ordinary course of business, 13.56
- performance, 10.54–10.61
- placing, 3.06–3.07, 7.02, 7.15–7.21, 12.07–12.08, 12.13
- pleadings, 18.08
- post-contractual, 3.64–3.79, 4.18–4.24, 10.07, 10.15–10.18
- pre-contractual duty, 3.53, 4.18–4.24
- premiums, recovery of, 7.15
- prevention of, 3.33–3.34, 3.39
- promissory estoppel, 17.131
- proof, 7.18, 7.20
- questions, 9.41
- reasonableness, 3.96, 3.99
- reinsurance contracts, 4.19
- reliance, 7.15
- remedies, 4.52–4.54, 4.56, 16.64–16.65
- renewals, 10.42
- representations of law, 7.78
- restitution, 16.122
- social or policy view of good faith, 5.02
- source of duty of utmost good faith, 4.11, 4.18–4.24
- standard of proof, 18.09
- subrogation, 10.53
- substantial, 7.14, 11.60–11.64
- technical, 4.19
- termination, 13.03, 16.101
- underwriters, 3.96, 3.99
- valuation, 15.86, 15.89–15.96
- waiver, 17.31
- warranties, 9.17
Fraud, materiality and, 7.16–7.21
- avoidance, 16.43, 16.46, 16.55
- claims, 14.116–14.124
- devices, 11.74–11.830, 14.123
- facts, examples of, 15.123
- inducement, 14.73, 14.124
- insurers, 14.127–14.128
- knowledge, 14.120
- Law Commission, 1.38
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 3.71, 3.73, 14.17
- misrepresentation, 14.10, 14.17, 14.45, 14.73, 14.122
- placing, 12.15, 14.127
- post-contractual duty, 11.42
- recklessness, 14.120
- substantial fraud, 11.40–11.41
Fraudulent claims, 11.06, 11.36–11.77 see also Avoidance or rescission of fraudulent claims;
Fraudulent claims clauses
- abandonment, notice of, 11.115
- advice, 11.86
- agents, 11.95–11.98, 13.62–13.64, 16.46
- alter egos, 11.95
- Page 709
  
  assured, identity of the, 11.91–11.98, 13.63–13.64
- burden of proof, 11.43
- claims control clauses, 3.78
- co-assured, 11.94
- common law, 16.49
- companies, 11.91–11.92, 11.95
- compromise, 3.76, 12.51
- concealment, 11.87–11.89, 16.38
- consent, 11.120, 16.54
- consequences of, 11.07
- continuation of duty, 11.105–11.116
- co-operation, 11.18
- corporate assured, 11.91–11.92, 11.95
- culpability, 11.32–11.33
- damages, 3.66, 10.50, 11.133–11.134, 16.127–16.131, 16.147
- declining claims without avoidance, 16.48–16.51
- defence to claims, insurers’, 11.45, 11.49–11.53
- deterrence, 11.16–11.17
- disclosure, 11.15
- discretion, 16.94–16.95
- documentation, 11.109
- enquiries, 11.18
- exaggerated and excessive, 3.64–3.65, 11.38, 11.45, 11.54–11.64, 11.76, 11.84
- false statements, 11.05, 11.37–11.38
- forfeiture, 11.08, 11.76, 11.100, 11.102, 11.121, 11.126–11.129 16.48, 16.55, 16.105–16.121
- fraudulent claims clauses, 11.99–11.104
- fraudulent devices, 11.42, 11.45–11.47, 11.65–11.74–11.83
- inducement, 3.73, 11.28, 11.38, 11.81
- information, 11.15, 11.18, 11.23, 11.38
- initially honest claims, 11.84–11.86
- intention, 11.38
- invented losses, 11.48
- investigations, 11.18, 12.50
- knowledge, 11.37–11.38, 11.45, 11.85, 13.62–13.64
- Law Commission, 5.27
- liability, establishment of, 11.106
- litigation, commencement of, 11.78, 11.108–11.111, 11.116, 12.54–12.56
- loss suffered, when, 11.79
- marine insurance, 11.08–11.09, 11.113, 11.115
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 11.09, 11.108, 11.110
- misrepresentation,
  - avoidance, 16.64–16.65
  - compromise, 3.76
  - culpable, 11.32
  - defences to claims, insurers, 11.49–11.53
  - utmost good faith, 11.28, 11.38
- negligence, 11.27, 11.32
- negotiations, 11.108
- post-contractual duty, 11.42, 16.55
- pre-contractual duty, 11.108, 11.108
- premiums, calculation of, 12.53
- presentation of claims, 11.07, 11.102, 11.105–11.107, 12.49–12.50
- prevention of fraud, 11.123
- proof, 11.43
- public policy, 11.72, 11.103
- public purpose, 11.122
- pure fraud, 11.48
- recklessness, 11.37–11.38
- rejection of claim, 11.108, 11.111, 12.51, 12.54, 12.56
- remedies, 16.27–16.29
- repudiation, 3.66, 11.133, 11.135
- restitution, 16.64–16.65, 16.68
- retrospectivity, 11.120
- risk, 11.81
- ship’s papers, discovery of, 11.109–11.110, 11.113
- standard of proof, 11.43
- substantial fraud, 11.40–11.42
- suspicion, 11.85
- termination, 3.81–3.82, 10.69
- trivial fraud, 11.40
- types, 3.75, 11.44–11.83
- utmost good faith, 3.75, 11.28, 11.38
- void contracts, 16.38–16.40
- wilful blindness, 11.85
- wilful misconduct, 11.48
- withdrawal, 11.90
Fraudulent claims clauses, 11.99–11.104
- co-assured, 11.101
- composite insurance, 11.101
- consumer contracts, 11.104
- effect of, 11.100–11.104
- exaggerated claims, 11.102
- forfeiture of entire contract, 11.100, 11.102
- interpretation, 11.100–11.102, 11.104
- liability insurance, 11.99
- marine insurance, 11.102
- property insurance, 11.99
- reasonableness, 11.104
- recklessness, 11.102
- retrospectivity, 11.100
- unfair contract terms, 11.104
- void contracts, 11.99–11.102
Fraudulent devices, 11.65–11.83
- additional premiums, 11.66–11.68
- avoidance, 10.61, 11.70
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  forfeiture, 11.73
- genuine claims, support of, 11.68
- inducement, 11.73
- Insurance Act 2015, 11.130–11.132
- materiality, 11.42, 11.73
- nature of duty of good faith, 3.73–3.74,
- premiums, additional, 11.66–11.68
- public policy, 11.72
- recklessness, 11.68
- remedies, 11.65
- types of fraudulent claims, 11.44–11.47
- war risks insurance, 11.66–11.67
- warranties, breach of, 11.69–11.70
Freedom of information, 6.45–6.46
Full disclosure, 3.29, 3.96, 3.101

General obligation in all contracts, 1.03
Genuine part of claims
- agents, 11.97
- avoidance, 16.49
- exaggerated and excessive claims, 11.60, 11.64
- forfeiture, 11.118
- fraudulent devices, 11.68
Global affairs, knowledge of, 8.18–8.19
Greatest good faith, 1.03
Group insurance, 13.33–13.35
Guarantees or surety, contracts of, 3.42
- avoidance for misrepresentation, 2.13
- banks, 2.11, 2.20
- concealment, 2.12
- continuing duty of good faith, 2.21
- credit history, disclosure of, 2.11–2.12
- disclosure, 1.30, 2.09–2.21
- dishonesty, 2.15
- due diligence, 2.18
- fidelity guarantees, 2.20
- inquiry, put on, 2.09
- insurance contracts, characterisation of, 1.22
- ‘intrinsic circumstances’, 2.16
- materiality, 2.17, 2.19
- misrepresentation, 2.10, 2.13–2.15
- unusual features, disclosure of, 2.18, 2.19
- utmost good faith, 2.09–2.21

Hardship, 3.99, 12.40, 16.164
Hazard see Moral hazard
Health
- basis clauses, 15.20
- disclosure, extent of, 15.18–15.20
- materiality, 15.02, 15.18–15.20
- medical records, 6.45, 7.121, 12.21
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 15.19
- warranties, 15.19–15.20
Held covered clauses
- additional premium clauses, 3.59
- additional terms, 10.27
- adjustment of obligations, 3.58, 10.27–10.31
- breach of, 3.58
- conditions precedent, 3.59
- descriptive warranties, 3.58
- disclosure, 3.58
- marine insurance, 10.27–10.30
- materiality, 14.60
- misrepresentation, 10.29
- notice, 3.59, 10.27, 10.30
- post-contractual duty, 10.27–10.31
- pre-contractual duty, 3.58
- premiums, payment of additional, 3.58, 10.30
- promissory warranties, 3.58
- utmost good faith, 3.58
Hire purchase, 15.60
Historical background, 1.01–1.02, 4.02–4.17
History of assured, 15.100–15.110
- basis clause, 15.107
- businesses, identity of, 15.102
- claims experience, 15.100–15.105
- companies, predecessor, 15.104
- credit history, 2.11–2.12
- financial history and practices, 15.23–15.24
- fire insurance, 15.102
- identity of the assured, 15.06, 15.08
- life insurance, 15.107–15.108
- loss experience, 8.60, 8.73, 15.100–15.105, 15.113
- marine insurance, 15.106, 15.107
- materiality, 15.100–15.110
- questions, prior refusals and, 15.108
- property, 15.101–15.103
- refusals, prior, 15.106–15.110
- reinsurance, 15.113
- risk assessment, 15.100–15.101
- underwriters, reaction of, 15.106–15.110
Honour, 1.03, 2.22, 5.01
House insurance
- age of goods, 15.56
- co-insurers, 13.36
- squatters, knowledge of, 8.29
- waiver, 8.60
Household insurance, 1.39

Identification see Identification of insurance contracts; Identification of property; Identity of assured
Identification of insurance contracts, 1.22–1.32
- binding authorities, nature of, 1.28
- classification of contract, 1.22
- compromise of claims, 1.31
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  definition of insurance contract, 1.22
- disclosure, 1.30–1.32
- duties, 1.24
- guarantee, contracts of, 1.22
- indemnities, 1.22, 1.29
- premiums, 1.22
- reinsurance, contracts for, 1.24
- risk, evaluation of, 1.25
- substantial character of insurance contracts, 1.25, 2.05
- substantive purpose of contracts, 1.22
- utmost good faith, 1.23, 1.25, 1.27, 1.31–1.32
- war risks policies, 1.27
Identification of property
- enquiries, 15.52
- floating policies, 15.55
- marine insurance, 15.53–15.55
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 15.55
- misrepresentation, 15.51–15.54
- non-disclosure, 15.51
- vessels, 15.53–15.54
- waiver, 15.52
Identity of assured
- brokers, 15.09
- businesses, 15.102
- claims, 11.91–11.98
- fraud, 11.91–11.98, 13.61, 15.06
- history, insurance, 15.06, 15.08
- marine insurance, 15.06
- materiality, 15.06–15.09
- proposers, 15.08
- reinsurance, 15.117
- risk assessment, 15.06
Illegality
- avoidance, 16.64
- English law, 15.122
- foreign law, 15.121
- fraud, 16.64
- marine insurance, breach of warranty and, 15.122
- materiality, 15.121–15.122
- moral hazard, 15.122
- previous convictions, 15.32
- representations of law, 7.76–7.80
- warranties, 15.122
Implied representations
- another representation, by, 7.32
- assured, by, 7.31
- conduct, 7.31, 7.32
- form, 7.31
- intention, 7.72
- knowledge, 7.31
- misrepresentation, 7.31–7.34, 7.37–7.45
  - non-disclosure, 7.37–7.45
- opinions, 7.49–7.56
- oral representations, 7.31
- performance, 7.34
- silence, 7.37–7.45
- written, 7.31
Implied terms
- claims, 10.50–10.51,
- damages, 11.134, 16.143–16.144
- forfeiture, 16.115
- inducement, 14.122
- materiality, 14.122
- non-disclosure, 4.32–4.34, 4.38, 4.43, 4.46–4.48
- payment of claims, 12.58–12.59
- post-contractual duty, 10.06
Inactivity see Delay, silence or inactivity
Indemnities
- characterisation of insurance contracts, 1.22
- identification of insurance contracts, 1.22, 1.29
- late payment, damages for, 5.30
- reinsurance, 1.29
- restitution, 16.123
Inducement
- actual risk, reference to the, 14.112
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.64
- application of the duty of utmost good faith, 1.35
- avoidance, 14.104, 16.41, 16.43, 16.75–16.76
- bad faith, 14.92
- basis clauses, 9.06, 9.09, 9.15, 9.19
- breach of duty, 14.92, 14.97
- burden of proof, 14.113–14.114, 14.116, 18.06
- causation, 3.05, 14.91, 14.107–14.108
- claims, 3.73
- co-insurers, 13.38, 13.46
- concealment, 1.02, 14.93–14.98, 14.108
- Consumer Insurance (Disclosure and Representations) Act 2012, 14.105
- continuation of duty, 3.44
- contributing influence test, 14.99
- damages, 16.129, 16.136, 16.164
- enquiries, 14.107, 14.117
- evidence, 14.114–14.116, 18.16
- false representations, 1.02
- fraud, 7.17–7.18, 14.110, 14.1113
  - avoidance, 16.41, 16.43, 16.75
  - claims, 3.73, 11.28, 11.38
  - devices, 11.74–11.83
- implied terms, 14.122
- incredible statements, 14.112
- inference, 14.110–14.114, 14.116
- Insurance Act 2015, 14.105
- Page 712
  
  insurance policies, existence of other, 15.127
- insurers, 14.99, 14.115, 14.127, 14.131–14.132
- marine insurance, 14.97–14.99
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 14.97–14.99, 14.101–14.105
- materiality, 14.05–14.09, 14.65–14.71, 14.81, 14.92–14.111
  - fraudulent misrepresentation, 14.17, 14.122
  - implied terms, 14.122
  - insurers, 14.127, 14.131–14.132
  - misrepresentation, 14.02, 14.17, 14.88–14.90 14.122
  - motor insurance, 14.46
  - prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.68
- misrepresentation,
  - basis clause, 9.19
  - caveat emptor, 1.09
  - damages, 6.36
  - equity, 4.27
  - fraud, 14.17, 14.122
  - materiality, 14.02, 14.17, 14.88–14.90 14.122
  - placing, 14.91, 14.95–14.97, 14.100–14.105, 14.109
  - qualifying, 14.105
  - reliance, 14.01
  - remedies, 4.51
- motor insurance, 14.46, 14.97
- mutuality, 3.90
- negligence, 14.111, 14.117
- non-disclosure, 14.95–14.98, 14.102–14.109
- objectivity, 14.92
- opinions, 14.92, 14.98
- placing, 7.08, 8.04, 12.15, 12.17, 12.22, 14.91–14.117
- pre-contractual duty, 14.96, 14.102
- presumption or inference, 14.110–14.117, 18.16
- proof, 14.97, 14.99, 14.106–14.117
- prospectuses, 14.95
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.68, 14.92, 14.98, 14.111–14.115
- real and substantial cause, 14.108
- reliance, 14.107
- remedies, 4.51
- renewals, 10.43
- risk assessment, 14.94
- risk, reference to the actual, 14.112
- sue and labour, 14.113
- termination, 13.03
- unconscionability, 17.11
- waiver, 14.113
- withholding information, 1.02
Inferences, 14.110–14.117
- facts, 7.64–7.69
- knowledge, 8.75, 8.79–8.81
- opinions, 7.69
- reliance, 14.110
Information
- agents, 8.102–8.105, 13.72–13.73, 13.89
- brokers, 8.92–8.93, 13.74, 13.77, 13.79, 13.82–13.88
- claims, 11.04–11.06
- confidentiality, 8.93–8.98
- fraud, 11.15, 11.18, 11.23, 11.38
- freedom of, 6.45–6.46
- further, 8.96, 17.100
- insurers, 15.120
- late, provided too, 8.102–8.105, 13.82
- materiality, 15.120
- occurrence of loss or insured peril, 15.120
- only, for, 7.47
- personal duties, 13.88
- professional advice, 15.120
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.41
- public domain, in the, 12.29
- sources of, 3.35
- Third Parties (Rights against Insurers) Act 1930, 13.100
- updated, 13.82
- withholding, 1.02
Injunctions, 16.146
Innominate terms, 10.46–10.47
Inquiries see Enquiries
Insolvency, 13.98, 13.100
Insurable interests
- assignees, 13.07, 13.11, 13.19
- co-assured, 13.07, 13.26–13.30
- law merchant, 4.07
- life insurance contracts, 15.22
- materiality, 15.21–15.22, 15.59
- meaning, 15.21
- ownership, 15.59–15.60, 15.63
- vessels, in, 15.63
Insurance Act2015, 6.04, 6.17–6.24
- agents 13.61
- application, 1.22, 6.18
- assured’s concerns, 15.25
- avoidance, 10.61–10.66, 11.21, 16.14–16.31
- basis clauses, 9.27–9.33
- breach of warranty, 9.33
  - burden of proof, 18.06
  - claim handling by insurer, 10.51
- conditions precedent, 9.30
- prohibition, 9.28–9.29
- promissory warranties, 9.32
- truth, 9.31
  - confidentiality, 8.97
- Page 713
  
  contracting out, 6.22, 6.24, 12.60
- deemed knowledge, 7.137–7.138, 8.45–8.48
- dereliction of duty, 13.60
  - diminution of risk, 8.09
- disclosure, 1.21
- fair presentation, duty of, 6.18, 8.52, 8.68
- force, in, 1.02
- fraud, 6.23
- held-covered clauses, 10.31
- implied term, 6.21
- inducement, 14.105
  - insurer’s duty, 12.02–12.04
- introduction, 1.19
- knowledge 6.18
- imputed 7.128–7.129
- insured, of, 6.18
- insurer, of, 6.18
  - late information, 8.102–8.105
- marine insurance, 6.17
- materiality, 8.16–8.17, 10.26, 14.87
- modification of duty of disclosure, 9.03
- non-marine insurance, 6.17
- payment of claims, 6.21–6.22, 12.57–12.61
  - placing, 8.01, 8.05, 12.23
- promissory warranties, 6.20
- qualifying duty of utmost good
- faith, 1.05, 1.12, 6.17
- reforms introduced, 5.40
- remedies, 1.06, 6.18, 11.130–11.132, 16.14–16.31
- termination, 16.102
  - unfair presentation of risk by
  - assured, 16.17–16.26
- utmost good faith, 10.02
- warranties, breach of, 17.21–17.52
Insurance Conduct of Business Sourcebook, 5.25, 6.15–6.16
Insurance claims see Claims
Insurance instruments, 1.48–1.54
Insurance market
- application of the duty of utmost good faith, 1.33–1.54
- assignees, 13.14
- brokers, 13.86
- enquiries, 12.26, 12.32
- experts, 18.13–18.14
- false or misleading representations, 7.90
- issue of policies, 12.46
- knowledge, 7.108–7.110, 8.41–8.48
  - market practice and customs,
  - assignees, 13.14
  - brokers, 13.86
  - knowledge, 7.115, 8.41–8.48
- materiality, 15.133
- nature of duty of utmost good faith, 3.20
- placing, 9.01
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.29
- risk assessment, 12.34
- waiver, 8.83
Insurance Ombudsman, 5.22–5.24
- consumer, meaning, 5.25
- damages, 5.23
- Dispute Resolution Rules, 5.23–5.24
- establishment of, 5.23
- Financial Ombudsman Service, 5.23
- Lloyd’s, 5.23
Insurance policies see also Floating policies
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.110–17.114
- best evidence, 1.48
- co-assured, 13.26
- conduct, 17.110–17.114
- development of, 4.08
- earlier, 16.71
- fidelity, 3.51
- issuing, 12.43–12.47, 17.110–17.114
- margins of policies, 7.47
- other policies, existence of, 15.124–15.128
- refusal to issue, 16.104
- replacement of, 17.113
- stamped, 12.40
- types, 1.33–1.54
- voyage, 15.74–15.75, 15.77
- war risks, 1.27
Insured see Assured
Insurers
- agents, 13.50, 13.65, 13.89–13.92
- avoidance, 16.42, 16.77, 16.79
- brokers, 13.76
- burden of proof, 18.01–18.08
- changes in law, 12.02
- claims
- reasonable time, 12.58, 16.30–16.31, 7.105–7.106
- treatment and investigation of, 12.49–12.61
- co-insurers, 16.77, 16.79
- duty, 12.01–12.61
- enquiries, insurer’s own, 12.24–12.37
- explain the policy terms, duty to, 12.38–12.42
- inducement, 14.17, 14.88–14.90 14.99, 14.115
- materiality and, 14.127, 14.131–14.132
- information, 15.120
- investigation of claims, 12.45–12.61
- issue the policy, duty to, 12.43–12.47
- knowledge, 8.12–8.487, 8.75–8.82, 14.126
- materiality, 12.01, 14.84–14.87, 14.126–14.132
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  mutuality, 12.01
- placing, 12.05–12.23, 14.126–14.132
  - post-contractual duty, 12.48
  - risk assessment, 12.24–12.37
- social or policy view of good faith, 5.03–5.04
- unconscionability, 17.09–17.18
- variation, 10.21, 14.84–14.87
Intelligence see Rumours, allegations, communications and intelligence
Intention
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.88
- basis clauses, 9.06
- change of intention, 7.70
- current intention, 7.70
- facts, 7.70–7.75
- fraud, 4.19–4.20, 11.38
- implied representations, 7.72
- knowledge, 17.88
- legal relations, to create, 1.11, 2.26, 10.10
- materiality, 7.70, 7.73–7.75
- placing, 3.07
- promises of future conduct, 7.70, 7.72–7.75
- representations, 7.70–7.75
- third parties, 7.74–7.75
- use, 15.68
- warranties, continuing, 7.73
Intention to create legal relations, 1.11, 2.26, 10.10
International law, 4.03
International trade, 4.04, 4.07, 13.24
Internet, 8.02, 12.26
Invented losses, 11.48
Investigations
- advice, 12.50
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.68
- avoidance, 12.50–20.51
- claims, 3.62, 3.66, 3.76, 3.95, 11.04, 12.49–12.61
- co-operation, 12.50
- experts, 12.50
- fraud, 11.18, 12.50–12.51
- knowledge, 3.62
- marine insurance, 12.44
- mutuality, 3.95
- questions, 12.50
- reasonableness, 12.56–12.57
- ship’s papers, discovery of, 3.76
- utmost good faith, 3.76
Issuing policies
- affirm or avoid, election to, 12.47, 17.110–17.114
- avoidance, 12.41
- breach of duty, 12.46–12.47
- conduct, 17.110–17.114
- continuity of the duty, 12.45
- duty to, 12.43–12.47
- evidence, 12.44
- formation of contract, 10.12
- insurer’s duty, 12.43–12.47
- marine insurance, 12.44
- market practice, 12.46
- materiality, 12.43
- slips, signing of the, 12.43–12.46
- stamped policies, 12.44

Joint insurance
- avoidance, 16.78
- co-assured, 11.94, 13.26–13.29, 13.31
Judicature Acts, 16.09
Jurisdiction
- Admiralty Court jurisdiction, 2.30
- agreements, 17.103
- Chancery, 16.04, 16.146
- contracts between spouses and family members, 2.27–2.28
- damages, 16.146
- equity, 16.06, 16.13, 16.92, 16.147
- forfeiture, 16.121
- fraud, 4.19, 4.22
- ship’s papers, ordering, 1.45, 10.07
- unconscionability, 17.11

Knowledge, 3.34–3.37 see also Agents, knowledge and
- actual, 7.99–7.110, 7.121, 8.12–8.17
  - affirm or avoid, election to, 17.67–17.69
  - exceptions to disclosure, 8.12–8.17
  - Marine Insurance Act 1906, 8.13–8.15
  - Insurance Act 2015, 8.16–8.17
  - promissory estoppel, 17.124, 17.143
  - waiver, 8.75–8.82
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.57–17.93
  - actual, 17.67–17.69
  - agents, 17.89–17.93
  - automatic avoidance clauses, 16.80
  - breach of duty, 17.53
  - certainty, 17.71
  - constructive, 17.67
  - explanation of the facts, 17.65
  - fact, question of, 17.70–17.71
  - facts, of, 17.57–17.66, 17.71, 17.74–17.75, 17.80
  - imperfect, 17.66
  - intention distinguished from, 17.88
  - legal, 17.71, 17.77–17.78, 17.81–17.85
  - legal advice, 17.77–17.78, 17.81–17.85
  - life insurance, 17.91
  - Page 715
    
    London market, 17.84
  - rights, of, 17.72–17.87
  - waiver, 17.71, 17.92
- age, 15.57–15.58
- agents, 17.89–17.93
- application of the duty of utmost good faith, 1.47
- assured, 13.51–13.53
- attribution to company, 7.107–7.110
- avoidance, 8.14, 13.55, 16.46, 16.80
- breach of duty, 7.139–7.146, 13.54–13.60, 16.31, 17.53
- brokers,
  - constructive, 7.130
  - imputed, 7.119–7.122
  - Marine Insurance Act 1906, 13.85
  - materiality, 13.74, 13.77
  - ordinary course of business, 13.56
  - placing, 13.87
- burden of proof, 18.04
- burglary insurance, 8.25
- business practices, 7.126, 7.133–7.134
- capacity, 13.73
- cargo,
  - age of, 15.58
  - nature of, 8.43, 8.81, 15.75
- certainty, 17.71
- characteristics and usage of insured trade, 8.41–8.44
- charterparty clauses, 8.43
- claims, 13.62–13.64
- common knowledge, 8.12, 8.18–8.24
  - Marine Insurance Act 1906, 8.18–8.21
- Insurance Act 2015, 8.22–8.24
  - companies, 7.107, 7.117–7.118, 11.91–11.92, 13.56,13.63
- composite insurance, 7.133
- concealment, 7.140
- constructive, 7.130–7.136
  - affirm or avoid, election to, 17.67
  - brokers, 1.43
  - consumer insurance, 1.43
  - placing, 3.11
  - promissory estoppel, 17.125
- consumer insurance, 1.43
- course of business, 7.130–7.136, 7.142
  - agents, 13.56
  - constructive knowledge, 3.11
  - deemed knowledge, 7.133
  - enquiries, 3.17
  - fraud, 13.56
  - imputed knowledge, 7.111, 7.123, 7.126, 7.128–7.129
  - insurers, knowledge of, 7.128–7.129, 8.12, 8.25–8.48
  - normal and unusual risks, 8.26–8.31
  - placing, 3.11
- databases, 7.133, 8.37
- deemed, 7.98, 7.131–7.139, 8.24
  - agent or employee of company, 8.47
  - common law, 8.25–8.44
  - Insurance Act 2015, 8.45–8.48
  - Marine Insurance Act 1906, 8.25–8.44
  - relevant information, 8.48
- departments in insurance companies, 8.14, 8.26, 8.32, 8.47
- dereliction of duty, 13.58
- directing mind and will of the company, 7.107, 7.118, 13.56, 13.63
- directors, 7.107, 7.117–7.118
- disclosure, 5.27–5.28,8.12–8.48
- dishonesty, 7.7.105
- due diligence, 8.39
- electronic communications, 8.20, 8.20
- enquiries,
  - due diligence, 8.39
  - insurers, by, 8.27, 8.34–8.35
  - Lloyd’s, 12.27
  - market information, 12.26, 12.32
  - ordinary course of business, 3.17, 7.131
  - records, 12.31
  - seaworthiness, 8.77
  - waiver, 8.77–8.78, 8.81
- equality in, 3.35
- explanation of the facts, 17.65
- fact, question of, 17.70–17.71
- facts,
  - affirm or avoid, election to, 17.57–17.66, 17.71, 17.74–17.75, 17.80
  - knowledge, 17.57–17.66, 17.71, 17.74–17.75, 17.80
  - promissory estoppel, 17.124–17.129
- financial history and practices, 15.24
- fraud, 7.139–7.146, 13.53–13.60
  - agents, 15.120
  - claims, 11.37–11.38, 11.45, 11.85, 13.62–13.64
  - devices, 11.42, 11.45–11.47, 11.65–11.74–11.83
  - materiality, 14.120
  - misrepresentation, 7.98, 7.110
- general knowledge, 8.24
- global affairs, 8.18–8.19
- housing insurance, squatters and, 8.29
- imperfect knowledge, 17.66
- imputed knowledge, 7.111–7.129, 7.139–7.146, 8.14, 13.63, 14.76
- inferences, 8.75, 8.79–8.81
- insurers, of, 7.108–7.110, 8.12–8.48, 8.75–8.82, 14.126
- Page 716
  
  intention, 17.88
- Internet, 8.40
- investigations, 3.62
- late, information provided too, 8.103
- legal advice, 17.77–17.78, 17.81–17.85
- legal knowledge, 17.72, 17.77–17.78, 17.81–17.85
- life insurance, 8.37, 17.91
- Lloyds’s,
  - agents, 7.125
  - knowledge, 12.28
  - Lloyd’s List and Lloyd’s Casualty Lists, 8.32
- London market, 17.84
- marine insurance, 7.115, 7.118, 8.27, 8.43, 8.75–8.81, 11.08–11.09
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 8.12, 8.25, 13.55–13.57
- market information, 12.26, 12.32
- masters’ discretion at sea, 8.43
- materiality, 7.98–7.106, 7.130–7.133, 7.139–7.142
  - agents, 13.52–13.53, 13.57
  - assured, 13.51–13.53
  - avoidance, 16.80
  - fraud, 13.53, 14.120
  - imputed, 7.111, 7.115, 7.111–7.129, 14.76
  - insurers, 8.13–8.16, 8.75, 8.77–8.78, 14.126
  - means of knowledge, 8.32–8.40
  - public records, access to, 8.32
  - waiver, 8.75, 8.77–8.78
- means of knowledge, 8.32–8.40
- medical records, access to, 7.133
- memory, refreshing the, 7.106
- misrepresentation, 7.98, 7.107, 7.127
- mutuality, 3.86
- natural persons, 13.56
- new facts, discovery of, 7.121
- non-disclosure, 7.98–7.146
- normal and unusual risks, 8.20–8.25
- opinions, 7.54
- ordinary course of business, 7.130–7.136, 7.142
  - agents, 13.56
  - constructive knowledge, 3.11
  - enquiries, 3.17
  - fraud, 13.56
  - imputed knowledge, 7.111, 7.123, 7.126, 7.128–7.129,
  - insurers, knowledge of, 8.12, 8.24–8.48
  - normal and unusual risks, 8.20–8.25
  - placing, 3.11
- particular knowledge, 8.26, 8.29–8.30
- past knowledge, 8.35
- placing, 7.07–7.10, 8.12–8.48, 13.51–13.53
  - agents, imputed to, 12.20, 13.51–13.53
  - knowledge, 3.11
  - Marine Insurance Act 1906, 8.01
  - non-disclosure, 7.98–7.146
  - ordinary course of business, 3.11
- ports, 8.43
- premiums, rate of, 8.77
- presumed, 8.12–8.48, 8.75–8.72
- promissory estoppel, 17.124–17.131, 17.135, 17.143, 17.145
- proposal forms, 13.90–13.91
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.29
- public records, access to, 8.32
- questions, 9.34
- reasonableness, 7.101, 7.134–7.1364, 8.75
- records, 12.31
- reinsurance, 8.25, 8.28, 8.28, 8.44, 8.82, 13.55
- related property, 15.75
- representations, implied, 7.31
- reservation of rights, 17.169
- rights, of, 17.72–17.87, 17.124–17.129
- risks, normal and unusual, 8.20–8.25
- salvage, 2.29
- seaworthiness, 8774
- subject matter of insurance, agent with knowledge of, 7.115
- suspicion, 7.104
- termination, 13.04
- trade usage, 7.115, 8.41–8.44
- types of insurance, 8.76–8.77
- underwriters, 8.18, 14.29
- unusual risks, 8.20–8.25
- utmost good faith, 8.13
- valuation, 15.98
- vessels,
  - age of, 15.57
  - nature of, 8.43
- waiver, 8.50, 8.64, 8.66, 8.75–8.82
- warranties, 7.134, 9.16–9.17
- wilful blindness, 3.17, 7.104–7.106, 7.133

Laches
- affirm or avoid, election to, 16.61
- avoidance, 16.61, 16.92, 16.94
- delay, silence or inactivity, 17.158–17.159
- equity, 17.159
- time limits, 17.164
Language, clear and unambiguous, 9.07, 9.10, 9.14
Late, information received too
- agents, 8.102–8.103
- brokers, 8.102–8.105, 13.82
- Page 717
  
  knowledge, 8.103
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 8.102–8.105
- materiality, 8.102–8.103
- placing, 8.102–8.105
Late payment of claims, 1.38, 3.95, 5.29–5.36, 12.61
Law Commission, 5.18–5.20, 5.27–5.42
- avoidance, 5.27–5.28
- basis clauses,
  - abolition, 5.27
  - ineffectiveness of, 5.18
- consumer insurance, 1.34, 5.28
- Consumer Insurance (Disclosure and Representations) Act 2012, 5.42
- Damages for late payment and the insurer’s duty of good faith, 5.28–5.36
- directive on insurance contracts (1979), proposal for, 5.18
- disclosure, 5.27–5.28, 5.38–5.39
- enquiries, making reasonable, 5.18
- Enterprise Act 2016, 5.42
- fraud, 1.34, 5.26
- Insurance Act 2015, 5.42
- Insurance Contract Law: Misrepresentation, Non-Disclosure and Breach of Warranty by the Assured, 1.38, 5.27–5.28
- late payment of claims, 1.38, 3.95 5.29–5.36, 12.61
- Law Reform Committee, 5.18
- materiality, 1.37–1.38, 5.09, 5.18
- misrepresentation, 1.38, 5.18, 5.27
- negligence, 1.38, 5.27
- post-contractual disclosure, 5.41
- pre-contractual disclosure, 5.37–5.40
  - proposal forms, enquiries and, 5.18
- reasonableness, 5.18
- recent reform, 1.19–1.21, 5.37–5.42
- reinsurance, 5.19
- Statements of Insurance Practice, 5.18
- utmost good faith, 1.38, 5.27, 5.37–5.42
- warranties, 5.27
Law merchant
- Barcelona, statutes of, 4.07
- candour, 4.11
- caveat emptor, 4.05, 4.11
- civil law, 4.08
- commercial law, 4.05–4.06
- common law, 4.03–4.05, 4.08, 4.11–4.14, 4.31
- Courts of Chancery, 4.04
- custom, 4.03, 4.05, 4.11, 4.13
- damages, 16.125
- equity, 4.05, 4.15
- Europe, development in, 4.07
- fraud, 4.11
- historical background, 4.02–4.17
- insurance contracts, development of, 4.07
- insurable interest, 4.07
- international law, 4.03
- international trade, 4.04, 4.07
- legislation, 4.07
- Lloyd’s, 4.10
- marine insurance, 4.11–4.12
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 4.12, 6.07–6.08
- maritime law, 4.08
- non-disclosure, 4.40
- remedies, 16.02
- sources of duty of utmost good faith, 4.04–4.17, 4.61
- subrogation, 4.07
- utmost good faith, 4.15–4.17
Law of Property Act 1925, assignees under, 13.08–13.09, 13.12
Law reform, 5.01–5.42 see also Law Commission
- application of duty of good faith, 1.37, 1.38
- Association of British Insurers, 5.20
- Australian Law Reform Commission, 5.07, 5.26
- avoidance, 5.07–5.08
- basis clauses, 5.21
- British Insurance Law Association, 5.07
- conditions, 5.18
- consumers, 5.25
- directive on insurance contracts (1979), proposal for, 5.12–5.16
- disclosure, 5.21, 5.25, 5.37–5.42
- exceptions, 5.17
- Insurance Act 2015, 5.40, 5.42
- Insurance Conduct of Business Sourcebook, 5.25
- Insurance Ombudsman, 5.22–5.24
- Law Reform Committee, 1.37, 5.17–5.18, 14.22–14.23
- legislation, 6.03
- Lloyd’s, 5.20
- materiality, 5.09, 5.17
- misrepresentation, 5.17
- post-contractual disclosure, 5.41
- pre-contractual disclosure, 5.11, 5.37–5.40
- proportionality, 5.08
- proposal forms, 5.21
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.22–14.23
- recent legislation, 1.19–1.21
- renewal notices, 5.21
- repudiation, 5.21
- rescission, 5.08
- Page 718
  
  social or policy view of good faith, 5.01–5.07, 5.17
- Statement on General Insurance Practice, 5.20–5.22
- Statements on Long-Term Practice, 5.20–5.22
- underwriter, prudent, 5.09
- voluntary, 5.20–5.25
Law, representations of, 7.76–7.80
Leading underwriters, 13.36–13.48
Legal advisers, 13.94–13.97
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.77–17.78, 17.81–17.85
- authority of, 13.97
- breach of duty, 13.95
- claims, 13.94–13.97
- disclosure, 13.96–13.97
- duties of, 13.97
- fraud, 13.97
- knowledge 17.77–17.78, 17.81–17.85
- litigation, commencement of, 13.96–13.97
- privilege, 13.96
- utmost good faith, 13.95–13.96
Legislation on duty of good faith, 6.01–6.57 see also Marine Insurance Act 1906
- confidentiality, 6.47
- criminal offences, 6.48–6.52
- deemed knowledge, 7.131–7.136
- discrimination, 6.43–6.44, 8.100
- freedom of information, 6.45–6.46
- law merchant, 4.11–4.12
- law reform, 6.03
- materiality, 14.10–14.16
- misrepresentation, 6.33–6.83, 9.23
- motor insurance, 6.02, 6.25–6.32, 9.24
- rehabilitation of offenders, 6.39–6.42, 8.99
- unfair contract terms, 6.54–6.57, 9.25
Letters of undertakings, 1.27, 13.21
Liability insurance
- claims, 10.45
- defence, right of control over, 3.15
- fraud, 3.78, 11.99
- post-contractual duty, 3.78, 10.15
Life insurance
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.91
- application of duty of good faith, 1.33
- assignees, 13.08
- basis clauses, 9.18, 15.107
- formation of contract, 10.12
- history, insurance, 15.107, 15.108
- insurable interest, 15.22
- knowledge, 8.37, 17.91
- materiality, 14.18–14.19, 14.21
- official secrets, 8.98
- opinions, 7.60
- prior refusal, 15.107, 15.108
- proposal forms, 7.60
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.18–14.19
- reinsurance, 15.112
- renewals, 10.42
- utmost good faith, 1.12
- waiver, 8.64
Lines, 1.48, 13.36
Listing Rules, 2.32
Litigation
- assignees, 13.08–13.11, 13.15, 13.18–13.19
- avoidance, 11.108
- choses in action, 13.08–13.11, 13.15, 13.18–13.19
- commencement of, 11.108–11.11, 11.116, 12.54–12.56
- continuation of duty, 11.108–11.109, 11.111, 11.115
- fraud, 11.108, 11.110, 11.113–11.116, 12.54, 12.56
- legal advisers, 13.96–13.97
- remedies, 11.108
- termination, 3.81–3.82, 10.69
- title to sue, 13.08
Lloyd’s
- agents, 7.125
- casualty list, 8.32, 12.26, 12.30
- enquiries, 12.26–12.27, 12.30, 12.32
- establishment of, 4.09
- formation of contract, 10.11
- Insurance Ombudsman, 5.23
- knowledge, 7.125
- law merchant, 4.09
- law reform, 5.20
- Lloyd’s List, 8.32, 12.27, 12.30, 12.32
- proposal forms, 10.11
- rejection of risk, 1.40
- slips, initialling, 10.11
- Statements, 6.15
London market
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.84
- knowledge, 17.84
- risk assessment, 12.34
Loss experience, 8.70, 8.73, 15.100–15.105, 15.113

Maintenance agreements, 2.26
Marineinsurance see also Cargo; Marine Insurance Act 1906; Vessels
- abandonment, notice of, 11.115
- additional premiums clauses, 3.59
- age, 15.57–15.58
- agents,
  - Page 719
    
    knowledge of, 6.18, 7.115
  - undisclosed principal, doctrine of, 15.10
- application of duty of good faith, 1.44–1.47
- assignees, 13.08–13.09, 13.12, 13.14
- Australian Law Reform Commission, 5.26
- avoidance, 9.41, 11.08–11.09, 16.34, 16.64, 16.91
- burden of proof, 18.08
- charterparty clauses, 8.43
- claims, 3.14
- continuation of duty, 11.115
- damages, 16.164
- deviation, 8.91, 15.68, 15.80
- disclosure, materiality and, 1.12
- discovery, 1.44–1.47
- discretion, 16.91
- floating policies, 1.53
- forfeiture, 16.113
- fraud, 7.11, 7.15, 11.102, 11.113, 11.115
- held covered clauses, 10.27–10.30
- history of assured, insurance, 15.106, 15.109
- identification of property, 15.53–15.55
- identity of the assured, 15.06
- illegality, 15.122
- inducement, 14.97–14.99
- issue of policies, 12.40
- knowledge, 7.115, 7.118, 8.25, 8.27, 8.32–8.40, 8.75–8.81, 11.08–11.09
- law merchant, 4.11–4.12
- masters’ discretion, 8.43
- materiality, 1.37, 1.39, 3.19, 14.13, 15.53–15.57, 15.62–15.65, 15.67, 15.74–15.82
- mutuality, 3.88
- ownership, 15.62–15.63
- perils of the sea, 18.03
- ports, 8.43
- post-contractual duty, 10.07
- premiums, 7.15, 15.120
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.37, 14.53
- questions, 9.41
- refusal of, 15.106
- repudiation, 5.21, 16.122
- restitution, 16.64
- salvage, 2.29–2.30, 9.25, 14.66
- scuttling, 1.44
- seaworthiness, 8.77, 11.95
- ship’s papers, discovery of, 1.44–1.47
- third parties, discovery of documents held by, 1.44–1.47
- underwriters,
  - attitudes of other, 15.109
  - prudent or reasonable, 14.37, 14.53
- undisclosed principal, doctrine of, 15.10
- utmost good faith, 1.12, 1.39, 3.02
- valuation, 15.93–15.99
- voyage, location and timing of, 15.77–15.80
- waiver, 17.23
- warranties, breach of, 15.122
Marine Insurance Act 1906, 6.06–6.11
- agents, 11.95, 13.59
- assignees, 13.08–13.09, 13.12
- avoidance, 9.41, 11.08–11.09, 16.34, 16.55, 16.64, 16.92
- brokers, 13.80–13.88
- Chalmers, Sir Mackenzie, 6.06, 6.08
- claims, 11.25, 11.29
- codification, 17.40
- co-insurers, 13.43
- common law, codification of, 6.02, 6.06, 6.08–6.10
- confidentiality, 8.97
- consolidating act, as, 17.44
- continuation of duty, 11.108, 11.110
- damages, 16.152
- diminution of risk, 8.09
- disclosure, 6.07, 8.01–8.05
- drafting, 6.06
- enquiries, 12.32
- exceptions to disclosure, 8.01–8.05
- experts, 18.13
- false or misleading representations, 7.94
- floating policies, 6.07
- forfeiture, 16.113
- fraud, 11.09, 11.95, 11.108, 11.110
- identification of property, 15.55
- inducement, 14.97–14.99, 14.101–14.105
- knowledge, 8.12, 8.25, 13.55–13.57, 13.59
- late, information provided too, 8.102–8.105
- late payment of claims, 5.34, 12.61
- law merchant, 4.13, 6.07–6.08
- materiality, 14.13–14.14, 14.17, 14.49, 14.76, 14.80, 14.90
- non-marine insurance, application to, 6.11
- placing, 8.01, 8.05
- post-contractual duty, 10.01–10.03, 10.15, 10.17
- promissory estoppel, 17.35–17.41, 17.44–17.52
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.37, 14.39
- representations, 6.07
- risk assessment, 12.34
- valuation, 15.93–15.97
- waiver, 17.23–17.52
- warranties, 8.88, 8.90–8.91
Market see Insurance market
Material facts, examples of, 15.01–15.134
- accumulation of non-material circumstances, 15.130–15.132
- Page 720
  
  age, 15.16, 15.56–15.58
- allegations, 15.39–15.44
- assured, 15.02, 15.04–15.49
- basis clauses, 9.06–9.09, 9.15–9.18, 9.20–9.21
- class of vessels, 15.81–15.82
- confidentiality, 8.95, 8.97
- conflicting duties, 8.93
- consumer insurance, 1.341–1.43
- contracts and arrangements, other, 15.129
- experts, 15.133
- financial history and practices, 15.23–15.24
- fraud, 15.123
- health, 15.18–15.20
- history, insurance, 15.100–15.110
- identity of assured, 15.06–15.09
- identity of property, 15.51–15.55
- illegality, 15.121–15.122
- information, insurance related, 15.120
- insurable interests, 15.21–15.22, 15.59
- knowledge, 15.133
- marine insurance,
  - age, 15.57
  - class of vessels, 15.81–15.82
  - current use, 15.67
  - identification of property, 15.53–15.55
  - intended use, 15.69
  - licences of vessels, 15.81–15.82
  - nationality, class, licences and registration, 15.81–15.82
  - ownership, 15.62–15.63
  - previous use, 15.65
  - related property, nature of, 15.74–15.76
  - voyage, location and timing of, 15.77–15.80
- market practice, 15.133
- medical insurance, 15.02
- moral hazard, 15.26–15.27, 15.49
- obviously material circumstances, 15.133–15.134
- occupation, 15.17
- origins, of, 15.11
- other policies, existence of other, 15.124–15.128
- ownership, 15.62–15.63
- post-contractual duty, 10.01, 10.15
- professions, 15.17
- property, 15.51–15.82
- prudent underwriter, 15.02
- race discrimination, 15.14
- reinsurance, 15.111–15.119
- related property, nature of, 15.74–15.76
- residence, 15.15
- scandal-mongering, 15.44
- social or policy view of good faith, 5.02–5.03
- subject matter of insurance, 15.02, 15.51–15.82
- value, 15.83–15.99
- voyage, location and timing of, 15.77–15.80
Materiality, 14.01–14.132 see also Fraud, materiality and; Material facts, examples of; Placings, materiality and
- additional premiums, 14.60
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.01–17.07, 17.63
- age, 15.16, 15.56–15.58
- allegations, 7.81–7.85
- application of the duty of utmost good faith, 1.35, 1.38–1.44, 1.47
- agents, 13.65–13.73
  - avoidance, 16.46
  - knowledge, 13.52–13.53, 13.57, 13.73, 14.76
  - misrepresentation, 13.89
  - pertinent information, receipt of, 13.73
- assignees, 13.11, 13.13
- assured,
  - concerns, 15.25
  - identity of the, 15.06–15.09
  - placing, 14.10–14.90
  - prudent assured test, 14.130
  - prudent underwriters, 14.18–14.23
  - reasonable, 14.18–14.23, 14.80
- Australian Law Reform Commission, 5.26
- aviation insurance, 1.37
- avoidance, 10.61–10.66
  - agents, 16.46
  - breach of duty, 14.123
  - condition precedent, 16.81
  - fraud, 16.43, 16.45, 16.55
  - inducement, 16.41
  - knowledge, 16.80
  - misrepresentation, 16.47, 16.71–16.72
  - variation, 16.72–16.73
- basis clauses, 5.21
- basis for test of, 14.83–14.83
- breach of duty, 14.44, 14.123
- brokers, 13.74, 13.77, 13.79, 13.81, 13.83–13.84
- burden of proof, 10.35, 14.08, 18.02, 18.04
- causation, 3.05
- circumstances, material, 14.15, 14.76, 14.129
- claims, 3.71, 3.73, 11.32, 14.118–14.124
- co-assured, 13.25, 13.32
- co-insurers, 13.38, 13.41–13.47
- common law, 14.10–14.16
- communications, 7.81–7.85
- concealment, 14.73, 14.119, 14.131
- condition precedent, 16.81
- consent, 14.06
- Page 721
  
  consumer insurance, 1.38
- contributing influence test, 14.41, 14.44, 14.48–14.49, 14.55–14.56
- criminal offences, 6.17, 6.48
- custom, 8.83
- damages, 16.127, 16.158
- decisive influence test, 14.41, 14.44, 14.47–14.50, 14.54–14.56
- diminution of risk, 8.08–8.09, 14.69, 14.79
- direct materiality, 14.72
- disclosure, 1.47, 4.30, 4.32–4.33, 14.01–14.132
- enquiries, 12.25, 12.28
- evidence, 14.193, 18.15
- evolution of test, 14.18–14.57
- exemption clauses, 16.83–16.84
- experience, 14.23
- experts, 15.133, 18.10, 18.12–18.14
- explain the terms, duty to, 12.41
- facts, 7.49
- false or misleading representations, 7.93–7.96
- family members, 2.26
- financial history and practices, 15.22–15.23
- forfeiture, 14.122
- formation of contract, 10.09, 10.12
- guarantees or surety contracts, 2.17
- held covered clauses, 14.60
- household insurance, 1.39
- identity of the assured, 15.06–15.09
- immaterial questions, 5.18
  - implied terms, 14.122
  - inducement, 14.05–14.09, 14.65–14.71, 14.92–14.111
  - implied terms, 14.122
  - insurers, 14.127, 14.131–14.132
  - misrepresentation, 14.02, 14.17, 14.88–14.90 14.122
  - motor insurance, 14.46
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.68
- Insurance Act 2015, 14.15
- insurers,
  - duty, 12.01
  - inducement, 14.127, 14.131–14.132
  - knowledge, 14.126
  - liability, 14.123
  - placing, 14.126–14.132
  - variation, 14.84–14.87
- intelligence, 7.81–7.85
- intention, 7.70, 7.74–7.75
- issue of policies, 12.43
- knowledge, 7.98–7.106, 7.130–7.121, 7.139–7.146
  - agents, 13.52–13.53, 13.57
  - assured, 13.51–13.53
  - avoidance, 16.80
  - fraud, 13.53, 14.120
  - imputed, 7.111, 7.115, 7.120–7.123, 14.76
  - insurers, 8.13–8.16, 8.75, 8.77–8.79, 14.126
  - means of knowledge, 8.32–8.40
  - public records, access to, 8.32
  - waiver, 8.75, 8.77–8.79
    - late, information provided too, 8.102–8.105
- Law Commission, 1.37–1.38, 5.09, 5.18
- law reform, 5.09, 5.17
- Law Reform Committee, 1.37, 14.22–14.23
- life insurance, 14.18–14.19, 14.21
- marine insurance, 1.37, 1.39, 3.19, 14.13
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 14.13–14.14, 14.17, 14.49, 14.76, 14.80, 14.90
- meaning,
  - circumstances, materiality of, 14.62
  - experts, 18.10
  - inducement, 14.02
  - Marine Insurance Act 1906, 14.14
  - misrepresentation, 14.03, 14.10, 14.81, 14.88–14.89
  - motor insurance, 6.27, 14.38
  - risk, pertaining to the, 14.68
- misrepresentation, 14.02–14.13
  - agents, 13.89
  - avoidance, 16.47, 16.72
  - claims, 14.118, 14.121
  - co-insurers, 13.44, 13.47
  - fraud, 14.10, 14.17, 14.45, 14.73
  - inducement, 14.02, 14.17, 14.88–14.90, 14.122
  - non-disclosure, 17.18
  - objective connection to risk, 14.62
  - placings, 7.02, 7.08, 12.11, 12.22
  - prudent underwriter, 14.42, 14.49, 14.88–14.90
  - risk, connection to the, 14.89
  - settlements, 3.76
  - silence, by, 7.37, 7.39, 7.43
  - third parties, 7.29
  - time of representation, 14.61
- modification by agreement, 14.16
- moral hazard, 14.69, 15.26–15.49
- motor insurance, basis clauses, 9.24
  - basis of test for materiality, 14.82
  - criminal offences, 6.17
  - definition, 6.27
  - misrepresentation, 6.26–6.28, 13.101
  - prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.38
  - third parties, 6.26, 6.29
- mutuality, 3.91–3.92
- negligence, 1.38
- negotiations, 12.24, 14.10, 14.59
- Page 722
  
  non-disclosure, 4.30, 4.32–4.33
- objective nature of, 14.09, 14.12, 14.22, 14.62–14.81, 18.10
- occurrence of loss, 14.69
- official secrets, 8.98
- omissions, 14.89
- open cover, 1.24, 3.27
- opinions,
  - damages, 7.54
  - disclosure, 7.54–7.69
  - expectations, 7.62
  - inferences, 7.69
  - misrepresentation, 7.57–7.58, 7.61–7.63
  - questions, 9.36
  - reasonableness, 7.68, 14.19, 14.22, 14.43
  - underwriters, materiality of opinions of, 1.40
- partnership agreements, 2.22
- pertinent information, receipt of, 13.72
- ports of loading and discharge, 15.77
- premiums, 14.60, 14.82–14.83
- presentation of material facts, 14.12
- previous convictions, 15.30–15.38
- proof of, 14.08
- proposal forms, 1.42, 5.21
- prudent or reasonable underwriter test, 14.77–14.81
  - characteristics of, 14.24–14.30, 14.37, 14.56
  - circumstances, materiality of, 14.129
  - effect on the, 14.31–14.57
  - inducement, 14.68
  - misrepresentation, 14.42, 14.49, 14.88–14.90
  - premiums, level of, 14.14
  - reasonable assured and, 14.18–14.23
  - reform, 1.37
  - risk, material to the, 14.63–14.72, 14.77–14.81
  - time for applying the, 14.58–14.61
- variation, 14.84–14.87
- purpose of duty, 14.52
- quality of, 14.05, 14.07, 14.65
- questions, 9.34–9.44
- reasonableness,
  - assured, of the, 1.38, 14.18–14.23, 14.80
  - consent, 14.06–14.07
  - Law Commission, 1.38, 5.18
  - experts, 18.10
  - misrepresentation, 14.03
- recklessness, claims and, 14.120
- rehabilitation of offenders, 6.41–6.42, 15.38
- reinsurance, 1.29, 15.119
- renewals, 3.61, 10.43, 14.80
- risk,
  - assessment, 12.35, 14.14
  - diminution of, 14.69, 14.79
  - misrepresentation, 7.23, 14.89
  - objective connection to the, 14.62–14.81, 14.89
- rumours, 7.81–7.85
- salvage, 9.36, 14.66
- shares publicly offered, contracts for purchase of, 2.31
- silence, 7.37, 7.39, 7.43
- spouses, contracts between, 2.26
- statutory requirements, 14.10–14.16
- subject matter of the risk, 14.67
- subjectivity, 14.22
- subrogation, 14.66, 14.78
- termination, 13.03–13.05
- terms, duty to explain the, 12.41
- time for testing, 14.58–14.61
- transport insurance, 1.37
- underwriters, opinions of, 1.40
- unfair contract terms, 6.56, 9.25
- use, 15.64–15.69
- utmost good faith, 1.39
- variation, 10.19–10.26, 14.60, 14.73, 14.84–14.90, 16.72–16.73
- waiver, 8.49–8.63, 8.66–8.74, 8.83
- warnings, 5.21
- warranties, 7.48, 8.84–8.92, 9.11
Meaning of good faith, 1.13–1.18, 3.23
Medical records, 6.45, 7.1133, 12.21
Merchantlaw see Law merchant
Misleading representations see False or misleading representations; Misrepresentation
Misrepresentation
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.01–17.07, 17.61, 17.64
- agents, 7.28, 13.65–13.67, 13.89
- allegations, 7.83
- assignees, 13.11
- assured, 7.25–7.30
- Australian Law Reform Commission, 5.26
- avoidance or rescission, 4.51–4.60
  - basis clauses, 9.19, 9.29
  - brokers, 7.26
  - damages and, 4.25, 6.36, 16.44
  - discretion, 6.35–6.36, 16.93
  - equity, 4.25, 4.27–4.28
  - fraudulent, 16.33, 16.64–16.65
  - guarantees or surety contracts, 2.13
  - inducement, 6.36–6.37
  - innocent, 16.34, 16.38
  - marine insurance, 9.41
  - material, 16.37, 16.47, 16.72
  - meaning of avoidance, 16.71
  - Page 723
    
    Misrepresentation Act 1967, 6.35–6.37
  - non-disclosure, 16.40, 16.53
  - restitution, 16.64–16.65
  - retrospectivity, 11.120
- basis clauses, 9.09, 9.13, 9.19, 9.23
- breach of duty, 4.28
- brokers, 7.25–7.26, 13.81
- burden of proof, 6.34, 18.04
- cancellation, 10.39
- causes of action, 7.26
- caveat emptor, 2.04
- claims, 3.67, 3.73, 11.26, 11.55–11.56, 14.118, 14.121
- co-assured, 13.30
- co-insurers, 13.340, 13.44, 13.47
- common law, 4.25, 4.28, 16.11
- communications, 7.83
- compromise, 1.31, 3.76
- concealment, 7.24
- conflicting duties, 8.93
- consideration, total failure of, 4.26
- consumer insurance, 5.28
- damages, 6.34–6.38
  - avoidance, 4.25, 16.
  - breach of contract, 16.160
  - common law, 4.28, 16.11
  - fraudulent, 16.127–16.131, 16.141, 16.156
  - innocent, 16.137
  - measure of damages, 16.134
  - Misrepresentation Act 1967, 16.136–16.141, 16.148
  - negligent, 16.76, 16.132–16.135, 16.153, 16.156
  - placing, 12.07
- defences, 11.49–11.53
- disclosure, 2.04, 4.38, 4.43, 4.47–4.48, 6.37–6.38, 7.03, 7.22–7.48
- discretion, 16.93
- dishonesty, 7.24
- equity, 4.25, 4.27–4.28, 4.55
- exaggerated and excessive claims, 11.55–11.55
- exemption clauses, 16.83–16.89
- facts, 7.49–7.79
- fair presentation of risk, 6.18, 7.05–7.06, 7.23, 8.52, 8.68
  - false or misleading representations, 7.86–7.97
- forfeiture, 16.105, 16.112, 16.114
- formation of contract, 10.09
- fraud, 7.15–7.21
  - avoidance, 16.64–16.65
  - breach of duty, 4.29
  - burden of proof, 6.34
  - co-assured, 13.30
  - damages, 16.127–16.131, 16.141, 16.156
  - fraudulent, 7.02, 7.15–7.21, 12.07–12.08, 13.30
  - inducement, 14.17, 14.122
  - knowledge, 7.98, 7.107
  - materiality, 14.10, 14.17, 14.45, 14.73, 14.122
  - non-disclosure, 3.99, 4.19
  - placing, 7.02, 7.15–7.21, 12.07–12.08
  - remedies, 4.52–4.54, 4.56, 16.64–16.65
- group insurance, 13.34
- guarantees or surety contracts, 2.10, 2.13–2.15
- held covered clauses, 10.30
- identification of property, 15.51–15.55
- implied representations, 7.31–7.34
- inducement,
  - basis clause, 9.19
  - caveat emptor, 1.09
  - damages, 6.36
  - equity, 4.27
  - fraud, 14.17, 14.122
  - materiality, 14.02, 14.17, 14.88–14.90, 14.122
  - placing, 14.91, 14.95–14.97, 14.100–14.105, 14.109
  - qualifying, 14.105
  - reliance, 14.01
  - withholding information, 1.02
- innocent misrepresentation, 4.25–4.29
  - avoidance, 16.16, 16.38
  - claims, 11.26
  - Law Commission, 5.18
  - remedies, 4.52–4.54, 4.56,
- insurance policies, existence of other, 15.127
- intelligence, 7.83
- knowledge, 7.98, 7.107, 7.127
- Law Commission, 1.38, 5.18, 5.26
- law reform, 5.17
- law, representations of, 7.76–7.80
- leading underwriters, 13.40, 13.47
- legislation, 6.33–6.38, 9.23
- materiality, 14.02–14.13
  - agents, 13.89
  - avoidance, 16.47, 16.72
  - claims, 14.118, 14.121
  - co-insurers, 13.44, 13.47
  - fraud, 14.10, 14.17, 14.45, 14.73
  - inducement, 14.17, 14.71, 14.88–14.90, 14.122
  - non-disclosure, 17.22
  - objective connection to risk, 14.62
  - placings, 7.02, 7.08, 12.11, 12.22
  - prudent underwriter, 14.42, 14.49, 14.88–14.90
  - risk, connection to the, 14.89
  - Page 724
    
    settlements, 3.76
  - silence, by, 7.37, 7.39, 7.43
  - third parties, 7.29
  - time of representation, 14.61
- Misrepresentation Act 1967, 6.33–6.38
- moral hazard, 15.47
- motor insurance, 6.26–6.30, 13.101
- mutuality, 3.87, 3.91, 3.94
- negligent, 4.25–4.29
  - common law, 16.11
  - damages, 6.34 16.132–16.135, 16.153, 16.156
  - inducement, 6.36
- open cover, 1.54
- opinions, 7.50–7.56, 7.54, 7.57–7.63
- placing, 7.02–7.14
  - disclosure, 12.05–12.23
  - enquiries, 8.04–8.05
  - facts, 7.49–7.85
  - falsity or untruth of, 7.86–7.97
  - material, 7.02, 7.08, 12.11, 12.22
  - non-disclosure, 7.07, 7.22–7.48
  - remedies, 7.03, 7.08–7.10
  - truth and, 3.12
- post-contractual duty, 10.01, 10.03
- proposal forms, 1.42
- prospectuses, 4.52
- prudent underwriters, 14.24–14.25, 14.30, 14.42, 14.49, 14.88–14.90
- questions, 9.40, 9.41, 9.44
- rectification, 7.27
- reinsurance, 1.54, 7.30, 15.115
- remedies, 4.25, 4.27, 6.34–6.38, 7.03, 7.08–7.10
- renewals, 10.41–10.43
- repudiation, 5.21
- rescission, 4.51–4.60
- restitution, 16.64–16.65
- risk, connection to the, 14.89
- rumours, 7.83
- settlements, 3.76
- silence, by, 7.35–7.45
- source of, 4.25–4.29, 7.25–7.30
- termination, 3.81, 13.03
- third parties, 7.28–7.29
- truth, 3.12
- underwriters, 13.40, 13.47
- use, 15.68
- utmost good faith, 2.04
- valuation, 15.89, 15.95–15.96, 15.98
- variations, 10.22, 10.24
- vessels, loading and discharge of, 15.77
- voidable contracts, 7.48
- waiver, 8.65, 17.22, 17.30
- warranties, 7.46–7.48, 8.90–8.91
- withholding information, 1.02
Mistake
- basis clauses, 9.22
- caveat emptor, 1.09
- common law, 4.35
- compromise, 1.31
- error and omission clauses, 16.84
- law, mistake of, 1.31
- mutual, 4.35
Modification of the duty of disclosure at placing, 9.01–9.44
- basis clauses, 9.06–9.33
- Consumer Insurance (Disclosure and Representations) Act 2012, 9.03
- Insurance Act 2015, 9.02
- market practice, 9.01
- materiality, 9.01–9.05
- proposal forms, 9.05
- questions from the insurer, 9.34–9.44
- transparency, 9.02, 16.82, 16.107
- unilateral, 9.05
- waiver, 9.05
- warranties, 9.06–9.33
Money had and received, 16.122
Moral hazard
- allegations, 15.39–15.44
- alter egos, 15.26
- bad faith, 15.27
- breaches of duty, past, 15.45–15.48
- convictions, past, 15.30–15.38, 15.45
- criminal charges, 15.40, 15.43–15.44
- dishonesty, 15.26–15.27, 15.30–15.44, 15.49
- evidence, 15.40
- fraud, 15.26–15.28
- illegality, 15.122
- materiality, 14.69, 15.26–15.49
- meaning, 15.26
- misrepresentation, 15.47
- renewals, 10.43
- third parties, 15.26
- valuation, 15.28
Most perfect good faith, 1.03
Motor insurance
- age of vehicles, 15.56
- avoidance,
  - declarations, 6.27, 6.30
  - ownership, 15.60
  - third parties, 6.30, 13.101
- basis clauses, 9.24
- cancellation, 6.30
- conditions, 6.27
- criminal offences, 6.31, 6.52
- disclosure, 6.38–6.30, 13.101
- exceptions to liability, 6.30
- Page 725
  
  false statements, 6.17, 7.89
- hire purchase, 15.60
- inducement, 14.46, 14.97
- legislation, 6.02, 6.25–6.32, 9.24
- materiality,
  - basis clauses, 9.24
  - basis of test for materiality, 14.82
  - criminal offences, 6.17
  - definition, 6.27
  - misrepresentation, 6.26–6.28, 13.101
  - prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.38
  - third parties, 6.25–6.30
- misrepresentation, 6.26–6.28. 13.101
- Motor Insurers’ Bureau, 6.30
- notification, duty of, 13.101
- ownership, 15.60–15.61
- previous convictions, 15.30–15.31
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.38
- public policy, 6.25
- rehabilitation of offenders, 6.27
- Road Traffic Acts, 6.25–6.32, 13.101
- self-incrimination, privilege against, 8.101
- stolen cars, 15.61
- third parties, protection of, 6.02, 6.25–6.30, 9.24, 13.101
- time limits, 6.27, 13.101
- truth, 9.24, 9.31
Mutuality, 3.84–3.95
- assignment, 3.9
- avoidance, 3.87, 3.90, 3.93, 3.95
- brokers, fraud by, 3.92
- claims,
  - investigation of, 3.95
  - presentation of, 3.85, 3.94–3.95
- definition, 1.05
- entire contracts, 3.89
- fraud, 3.92, 3.95
- inducement, 3.90
- insurer’s duty, 12.01
- investigation, 3.95
- knowledge, 3.86
- late payment of claims, 3.95, 5.32–5.33
- marine insurance, 3.88
- materiality, 3.91–3.92
- misrepresentation, 3.87, 3.91, 3.94
- non-disclosure, 3.94
- placing, 3.85
- post-contractual duty, 10.03
- repudiation, 3.95
- utmost good faith, 3.93, 10.03
- variations, 10.21

Nationality, materiality of, 15.11–15.15
Natural law, 4.02–4.03, 4.40
Nature of duty of utmost good faith, 3.01–3.103
- adaptation of duty, 3.24
- adjustment of obligations, 3.53–3.61
- after contracts are made, 3.53–3.78
- boundaries of duty, 3.18, 3.23, 3.30
- causation, 3.05
- claims, 3.14, 3.62–3.76
- classification of principle of utmost good faith, 3.02
- commercial reality, 3.30
- content of duty, 3.20–3.21, 3.309
- continuity of duty of good faith, 3.30, 3.43–3.83
- course of action, commitment to, 3.26
- customs, 3.20
- disclosure, 3.02, 3.06–3.13
- elasticity, 3.23
- fair presentation, duty of, 6.18, 8.52, 8.68
- fairness, 3.30
- fraud, good faith as an engine of, 3.96–3.103
- implementation of principle of good faith, 3.04
- incidence of duty, 3.20
- interpretive principle, as, 3.31, 6.15, 12.02
- mutuality, 3.84–3.95
- obligations, identification of, 3.04
- operation of contracts, 3.77–3.79
- placing, 3.06–3.13, 3.22, 3.44–3.52
- policies, 3.03
- practicable, duty must be, 3.24
- pre-contractual disclosure, 3.02
- principles, utmost good faith as a set of, 3.02, 3.30
- purpose of duty of good faith, 3.33–3.42
- qualifying, 1.05, 1.12, 6.17
- reform, 5.40
- rules, 3.04
- scope of duty, 3.30
- structured duty, 3.01–3.21
- tailoring the duty, 3.22–3.32
- termination of duty, 3.80–3.83
- trade practice, 3.20
Negligence
- damages, 16.132–16.135, 16.148–16.149, 16.153, 16.154
- fraud, 11.26, 11.32
- inducement, 14.111, 14.117
- Law Commission, 1.38
- misrepresentation, 4.25–4.29, 6.34, 6.36, 16.132–16.135, 16.153, 16.156
- placing, 7.08
- representations of law, 7.77
- termination, 13.03
Negotiations
- agents, 13.49
- Page 726
  
  basis clauses, 5.04
- brokers, 13.83
- caveat emptor, 2.04
- claims, 11.01–11.02, 11.57
- common law, 1.10
- Continental jurisdictions, 1.10
- continuation of duty, 11.108
- exaggerated and excessive claims, 11.57, 11.64
- examples of requirements, 1.14
- fairness, 3.15
- formation of contract, 10.09–10.10
- fraud, 11.108
- materiality, 12.24, 14.10, 14.59
- meaning of good faith, 1.14
- post-contractual duty, 10.09–10.10
- unfair contract terms, 6.56
- utmost good faith, 2.03
Non-disclosure see Disclosure and non-disclosure
Notice and notification
- abandonment, notice of, 11.115
- additional premium clauses, 10.32
- agents, 13.65, 13.71
- assignees, 13.10, 13.14
- cancellation, 3.58, 10.35–10.40
- change in circumstances, 5.15, 10.34
- claims, 3.66, 5.16, 10.45–10.49
- co-insurers, 13.41
- directive on insurance contracts, proposal for, 5.15–5.16
- fraud, 3.78, 11.115
- held covered clauses, 3.59, 10.27, 10.30
- leading underwriters, 13.41
- motor insurance, 6.27, 13.101
- post-contractual duty, 3.78

Objectivity
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.98
- experts, 18.10
- false or misleading representations, 7.87
- inducement, 14.92
- materiality, 14.09, 14.12, 14.22, 14.62–14.81, 18.10
- opinions, 7.55
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.22
Obligations, adjustment of see Adjustment of obligations
Occupation, materiality of, 15.17
Offenders see Rehabilitation of offenders
Offer, formation of contract and, 10.10
Official secrets, 6.47, 8.98
Ombudsman see Insurance Ombudsman
Omissions
- basis clauses, 9.22
- damages, 16.155
- error and omission clauses, 16.84
- materiality, 14.89
- promissory estoppel, 17.135
- silence, 7.38
Open cover
- acceptance of risk, 1.50–1.51
- application of duty of good faith, 1.34
- avoidance, 1.54
- co-insurers, 13.45
- contracts for insurance, 1.24, 1.50
- declarations,
  - co-insurers, 13.46
  - discretion to accept, 1.24
  - fraud, 3.78
  - future, 1.24
  - materiality, 1.24, 3.27
  - reinsurance, 1.50–1.52, 1.54
- disclosure, 1.24, 1.52
- good faith, 1.24
- materiality, 1.24, 3.27
- misrepresentation, 1.54
- non-disclosure, 1.54
- obligatory, 1.54
- options, 1.52
- performance, 10.58
- termination, 3.48
- terms, 1.50–1.52
- time of making, 1.49–1.51
Openness and probity, 3.40
Opinions or beliefs
- basis clauses, 9.16
- conjecture, 7.65–7.66
- damages, 7.54
- disclosure, 7.50–7.63
- dishonesty, 7.52
- enquiries, making, 7.53, 12.27
- experts, 18.11
- facts, 7.50–7.56
- fear, 7.65
- fiduciaries, 2.36
- good faith, 7.52–7.53
- implied representations, 7.50–7.56
- inducement, 14.92, 14.99
- inferences, 7.69
- information, 7.59
- intelligence, 7.66
- justification for, 7.50–7.56
- knowledge, 7.54
- life insurance proposal forms, 7.60
- materiality, 1.40, 7.54, 7.57–7.58, 7.61–7.65
- misrepresentation, 7.50–7.63
- objectivity, 7.65
- proposal forms, 7.60
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.19
- Page 727
  
  questions, 9.36
- reasonableness, 7.53–7.55, 7.67–7.69, 14.19, 14.22, 14.43
- representations, 7.33, 7.57–7.63
- implied 7.50–7.56
- speculations, 7.65–7.66
- suspicion, 7.65
- underwriters, 1.40, 14.19
- valuation, 15.84, 15.86, 15.96
- warranties, 9.16
- wilful blindness, 7.55
Ordinary course of business
- agents, 13.56
- brokers, 13.74, 13.83
- enquiries, 12.25, 12.30, 12.32
- experts, 18.13
- fraud, 13.56
- insurers, 8.12, 8.25–8.44
- knowledge, 3.17, 7.111, 7.123, 7.126, 7.130–7.125, 7.129, 8.25–8.48
- normal and unusual risks, 8.20–8.25
- placing, 3.11
- warranties, 9.11
Origins, materiality of, 15.12
Other policies, existence of
- avoidance, 15.125
- contribution, 15.126
- double insurance, 15.126
- inducement, 15.127
- misrepresentation, 15.127
- non-disclosure, 15.127
- over-insurance, 15.124, 15.126
- questions, 15.124
- renewals, 15.128
- valuation, excessive, 15.124, 15.126
Over-insurance, 15.124, 15.126
Ownership
- avoidance, 15.60
- hire purchase, 15.60
- insurable interest, 15.59, 15.63
- marine insurance, 15.62–15.63
- materiality, 15.59–15.72
- motor insurance,
  - avoidance of, 15.60
  - hire purchase, 15.60
  - stolen cars, 15.61
- vessels, 15.62–15.63

Partnership agreements, 2.21–2.23
Past convictions see Previous convictions
Pay to be paid clauses, 10.52
Payments
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.119
- avoidance, 16.572
- claims, 12.57–12.61, 16.62, 17.119, 17.166
  - conduct, 17.119
- court, into, 17.149
- held covered clauses, 3.58, 10.30
- late payment of claims, 1.38, 12.61
- premiums, 3.58, 10.30
- reasonable time, 12.58, 16.30–16.31
- reservation of rights, 17.166
Performance
- cancellation, 10.59
- claims, 10.54
- claims co-operation clauses, 10.59
- co-operation during, 3.15
- declarations, 10.58
- floating policies, 10.58
- fraud, 10.54–10.61
- meaning of good faith, 1.15
- open cover, 10.58
- post-contractual duty, 3.78, 10.16–10.17, 10.54–10.61
- relevance of duty to performance, 1.05
- utmost good faith, 10.54–10.61
- valuation, 10.56–10.58
Placing see also Placings, materiality and
- agents, 11.96, 12.20, 13.51–13.53
- arbitration agreements, 17.103, 17.108
- avoidance, 12.02–12.03
- bad faith, 3.06–3.07, 3.12, 7.07
- brokers, 13.78–13.88
- causes of action, elements of, 7.13
- concealment, 3.07
- continuity of duty, 3.44–3.50, 12.20
- damages, 12.07, 12.09
- data protection, 12.21
- deceit, 7.09
- directive on insurance contracts, proposal for, 5.14
- disclosure, 3.06–3.13
  - claims, 3.62
  - facts, 7.49–7.85
  - fraud, 12.13
  - full, 7.01–7.146
  - knowledge, 7.98–7.146
  - misrepresentation, 7.03, 7.22–7.42, 12.05–12.08
  - modification of duty, 9.01–9.44
  - premiums, rating and fixing, 3.17
- dishonesty, 7.07
- duty of care, 3.09
- facts, 7.49–7.85
- forfeiture, 16.118
- forgetfulness, 7.07
- fraud, 7.15–7.21
  - agents, 11.96
  - bad faith, 3.06–3.07
  - Page 728
    
    disclosure, 12.13
  - misrepresentations, 7.02, 7.15–7.21, 12.07–12.08
- governing principle, 3.06, 3.10
- inducement, 7.08, 12.15, 12.18, 12.22, 14.91–14.117
- insurers, 12.05–12.23, 14.126–14.132
- intention, 3.07
- knowledge, 7.08–7.10
  - agents, imputed to, 12.20, 13.51–13.53
    - constructive, 3.11
  - non-disclosure, 7.98–7.146
  - ordinary cause of business, 3.11
- medical records, access to, 12.21
- misrepresentation, 7.02–7.14
  - disclosure, 7.07, 7.22–7.48, 12.05–12.08
  - enquiries, 8.04–8.05
  - facts, 7.49–7.85
  - falsity or untruth of, 7.85–7.96
  - non-disclosure, 7.07, 7.22–7.48
  - remedies, 7.03, 7.08–7.10
  - truth, 3.12
- mutuality, 3.85
- nature of duty of utmost good faith, 3.06–3.13, 3.22
- negligence, 7.08
- ordinary course of business, knowledge in the, 3.11
- placing, 8.01–8.105
- pre-contractual disclosure, 3.07–3.09, 3.13, 3.44
- premiums,
  - rating and fixing, 3.17
  - recovery of, 12.05–12.08
- reasonableness, 3.10, 12.11, 12.14
- records, 12.21
- remedies, 7.03, 7.08–7.10
- social or policy view of good faith, 5.01
- utmost good faith, 3.06–3.13, 3.17
- warranties, 8.86
Placings, materiality and
- assured, at, 14.10–14.90
- definition, 12.14–12.15
- disclosure, 1.48, 3.22
- exceptions, 8.01–8.04
- fraud, 12.15, 14.127
- insurance instruments, 1.48
- insurers, 12.05, 12.10, 12.17–12.19, 14.126–14.132
- medical records, access to, 12.21
- misrepresentation, 7.02, 7.06, 7.08, 12.11, 12.22
- modification of duty, 9.01–9.44
- reasonableness, 3.10, 3.12
Policies see Insurance policies
Policy 3.41, 6.25, 11.90
- see also Social or policy view of good faith
Ports, knowledge and, 8.43
Post-contractual duty, 10.01–10.70
- additional premium clauses, 10.32–10.33
- adjustment of obligations, 3.53–3.61, 10.15–10.43, 10.61–10.66
- avoidance, 10.15, 10.61–10.66, 11.35, 16.53, 16.53–16.57
- cancellation clauses, 10.35–10.40
- causation, 3.05
- change of circumstances, 10.34
- claims, 3.62–3.76
  - control clauses, 3.78
  - extent of duty, 3.14
  - presentation of, 10.16–10.17, 10.44–10.53, 11.25
- co-assured, 13.31
- continuing nature of duty, 3.53–3.78, 10.02, 10.15
- damages, 16.159, 16.165
- disclosure, 4.47–4.49
- forfeiture, 16.118
- formation of the contract of insurance, 10.08–10.14
- fraud, 3.64–3.78, 4.18–4.24, 10.07, 10.15–10.18, 11.42, 16.55
- held covered clauses, 10.27–10.31
- implied terms, 10.06
- insurer’s duty, 12.48
- liability insurance, 3.78, 10.15
- making of contract of insurance, 10.09–10.14
- marine insurance, 10.07
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 10.01–10.03, 10.15, 10.17
- materiality, 10.01, 10.15, 10.26
- misrepresentation, 10.01, 10.03
- mutual duty, 10.03
- negotiations, 10.09–10.10
- non-consumer contracts, 10.26
- notice provisions, 3.78
- operation of the contract, 3.77–3.79, 10.54–10.61
- parties, 10.08
- performance of obligations, 3.78, 10.16–10.17, 10.54–10.61
- pre-contractual duty, 3.53, 3.57, 10.07
- premiums, calculation of, 3.78
- renewals, 10.41–10.43
- repudiation, 10.15
- revival of duty, 3.52
- ship’s papers, discovery of, 10.07
- source of duty, 10.06
- termination of duty of utmost good faith, 10.61–10.70
- Page 729
  
  unconscionability, 17.11
- utmost good faith, 10.01–10.08, 10.15–10.17, 10.61–10.70
- variations to the insurance contract, 3.55, 10.19–10.26
- warranties, 8.86
  - when parties are in a post-contractual relationship, 10.08
Precedent, 16.10
Pre-contractual duty
- additional premium clauses, 3.59
- adjustment of parties’ obligations, 3.53
- Australian Law Reform Commission, 5.26
- avoidance, 3.55, 10.61, 11.120, 16.53
- basis clauses, 9.17
- boundaries of, 3.18
- cancellation, notices of, 3.60
- claims, 11.01, 11.26, 11.56
- co-assured, 11.94
- concealment, 11.88–11.89
- continuation of duty, 3.44, 11.108
- damages, 16.156
- directive on insurance contracts, proposal for, 5.15
- exaggerated and excessive claims, 11.56
- fraud, 3.53, 4.18–4.24, 11.106–11.107
- held covered clauses, 3.58
- increase in risk, 3.55
- inducement, 14.96, 14.102
- law reform, 5.11
- nature of duty of utmost good faith, 3.02
- non-disclosure, 4.30, 4.43, 4.47–4.49
- placing, 3.07–3.09, 3.13, 3.44
- post-contractual duty of disclosure, 3.53, 3.57, 10.07
- relevance to pre-contractual duty, 1.05
- renewals, 3.61, 10.41
- revival, 3.54
- source of duty, 10.06
- utmost good faith, 10.06
- variation of the contract, 3.55–3.56
  - endorsement, by, 3.56
  - post-contractual, 3.57
- waiver, 8.50
- warranties, 8.86–8.87
Premiums see also Premiums, recovery of
- acceptance, 10.12, 16.62, 17.115–17.116
- additional premium clauses, 3.59, 10.33, 11.66–11.68
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.115–17.116
- assignees, 13.20
- avoidance,
  - acceptance of, 16.62
  - calculation of premiums, 12.53
  - election, 17.115–17.117
  - recovery, 10.63, 16.64, 16.70
- Australian Law Reform Commission, 5.26
- calculation of, 3.78, 12.53, 14.35–14.40, 14.51, 14.82–14.83
- conduct, 17.115–17.116
- disclosure, 3.59
- forfeiture, 16.106
- formation of contract, 10.12
- fraudulent devices, 11.66–11.68
- identification of insurance contracts, 1.22
- knowledge, 8.77
- marine insurance, 7.15
- materiality, 14.14, 14.60, 14.82–14.83
- post-contractual duty, 3.78
- promissory estoppel, 17.135
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.14, 14.35–14.40, 14.51
- rate of, 8.77
- reinsurance, 15.114
- warranties, 8.89
Premiums, recovery of
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.04
- assignees, 13.20
- Australian Law Reform Commission, 5.26
- avoidance, 10.63, 16.64, 16.70
- damages, 16.161
- directive on insurance contracts, proposal for, 5.14
- fraud, 7.15
- marine insurance, 7.15
- placing, 12.07
- promissory estoppel, 17.145
- restitution, 16.122
Previous convictions see also Rehabilitation of offenders
- dishonesty, 15.30–15.38
- illegality, 15.32
- materiality, 15.32–15.38
- moral hazard, 15.30–15.38, 15.49
- motor insurance, 15.30–15.31
- waiver, 15.33
Principles, utmost good faith as a set of, 3.02, 3.30
Privilege
- legal advisers, 13.96
- self-incrimination, against, 8.100
Privity of contract, 13.03, 13.98–13.100
Professional advice, 2.36, 15.120 see also Legal advisers
Professions, materiality of, 15.17
Promissory estoppel, 17.120–17.161
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.55, 17.86–17.87, 17.116, 17.120–17.161
- arbitration, 17.135
- Page 730
  
  avoidance, 17.141–17.142, 17.146
- basis clause, 17.144–17.145
- burden of proof, 17.126–17.163
- cancellation, 17.146
- claims, paying, 17.149
- conduct,
  - cancellation provisions, 17.146
  - claims, payment of, 17.149
  - delay, 17.150–17.161
  - inactivity, 17.130, 17.132, 17.150–17.161
  - payments into court, 17.149
  - reliance, 17.138–17.139
  - security measures, advice on, 17.148
  - silence, 17.130, 17.132, 17.150–17.161
  - unequivocal, 17.1263, 17.132, 17.141–17.161
- delay, 17.50–17.161
- detriment, 17.139–17.140
- equitable estoppel, 17.120
- fraud, 17.131
- inactivity, 17.130, 17.132, 17.150–17.161
- knowledge, 17.124–17.31
  - actual, 17.125, 17.143
  - apparent, 17.125, 17.130, 17.135
  - constructive, 17.125
  - facts, of, 17.125–17.129
  - rights, of, 17.125–17.129
  - warranties, breach of, 17.145
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 17.35–17.40, 17.44–17.52
- omissions, 17.135
- payments into court, 17.149
- premiums,
  - payment of, 17.135
  - recovery of, 17.145
- reliance, 17.132–17.139
  - cancellation provision, on, 17.146
  - detriment, 17.139–17.140
  - warranties, breach of, 17.145
- repudiation, 17.144
- reservation of rights, 17.169
- security measures, advice on, 17.148
- silence, 17.130, 17.132, 17.150–17.161
- suspensory, as, 17.123
- waiver,
  - affirm or avoid, election to, 17.122–17.123
  - avoidance, 17.21
  - Marine Insurance Act 1906, 17.08
  - reliance, 17.134, 17.145
  - warranties, breach of, 17.22, 17.29–17.39, 17.41–17.52
- warranties, breach of, 17.125–17.128, 17.131, 17.136–17.134, 17.144–17.149
Proof see also Burden of proof
- false or misleading representations, 7.92
- fraud, 7.18, 7.20, 11.43
- inducement, 14.97, 14.99, 14.106–14.117
- materiality, 14.08
- standard of proof, 11.43, 18.09
Property
- age of, materiality of, 15.56–15.58
- application of duty of good faith, 1.33
- class of vessels, 15.81–15.82
- condition of, 15.71–15.72
- current use, 15.66–15.67
- fraudulent claims clauses, 11.99
- history of assured, insurance, 15.101–15.103
- identification of property, materiality of, 15.51–15.55
- intended use, 15.68–15.69
- licences of vessels, 15.80–15.82
- location, 15.66–15.67, 15.77–15.80
- marine insurance, materiality and,
  - age, 15.57
  - class of vessels, 15.81–15.82
  - current use, 15.67
  - identification, 15.52–15.55
  - intended use, 15.69
  - licences of vessels, 15.81–15.82
  - nationality, class, licences and registration, 15.81–15.82
  - ownership, 15.62–15.63
  - previous use, 15.65
  - related property, nature of, 15.74–15.76
  - voyage, location and timing of, 15.77–15.80
- materiality, 15.51–15.82
- nationality of vessels, 15.81–15.82
  - nature of property, 15.71–15.72
- non-marine, materiality of,
  - age, 15.56
  - current use, 15.66
  - identification, 15.51–15.52
  - intended use, 15.68
  - ownership, 15.59–15.61
  - previous use, 15.64
  - related property, nature of, 15.72
- ownership, materiality of, 15.59–15.63
- premises, use of, 8.59
- previous use, 15.64–15.65
- qualifications of person in charge or with custody of, 15.70
- registration of vessels, 15.81–15.82
- related property, 15.73–15.76
- safety of, 15.71–15.72
- storage, 15.69
- subject matter insured, 15.50–15.82
- Third Parties (Rights against Insurers) Act 1930, 13.99
- voyage, location and timing of, 15.77–15.80
Page 731

Proportionality
- application of the duty of utmost good faith, 1.41
- avoidance, 11.24, 11.26, 16.15
- claims, 11.24, 11.26
- EU law, 5.08
- law reform, 5.08
- unconscionability, 17.14–17.15
Proposal forms
- agents, 13.89–13.91
- basis clauses, 9.08, 9.17, 9.20
- completion, 13.90–13.91
- formation of contract, 10.11
- knowledge, 13.90–13.91
- Law Commission, 5.18
- law reform, 5.21
- life insurance, 7.60
- Lloyd’s, 10.11
- materiality, 1.42, 5.21
- misrepresentation, 1.42
- opinions, 7.60
- placing, 9.05
- questions, 9.38
- social or policy view of good faith, 5.04
- Statement of General Insurance Practice, 1.42
- Statements of Long-Term Insurance Practice, 1.42
- waiver, 8.50, 8.54–8.64
- warnings, 1.342, 5.21
- warranties, 9.11
Prospectuses, 2.31–2.32, 4.52, 14.95
Proximity, 16.150
Prudent or reasonable underwriter see also Prudent or reasonable underwriter, materiality and
- application of duty of good faith, 1.37
- avoidance, 16.41
- characteristics of, 14.24–14.30
- concealment, 14.30
- contributing influence test, 14.41, 14.44, 14.48–14.49, 14.55–14.56
- decisive influence test, 14.41, 14.44, 14.47–14.50, 14.54–14.56
- disclosure, 14.18–14.57
- effect of duty on the underwriter, 14.31–14.57
- experts, 14.23, 18.11
- health, 15.19
- inducement, 14.68, 14.92, 14.98, 14.111–14.114
- information, 14.41
- knowledge, 14.29
- law reform, 5.09
- Law Reform Committee, 14.22–14.23
- life insurance, 14.18–14.19
- marine insurance, 14.37, 14.53
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 14.37, 14.39
- market practice, 14.29
- materiality,
  - circumstances, meaning of, 14.37, 14.56
  - facts, examples of, 15.02
  - misrepresentation, 14.42, 14.49, 14.88–14.90
- misrepresentation, 14.24–14.25, 14.30, 14.42, 14.49, 14.88–14.90
- motor insurance, 14.38
- objectivity, 14.22
- opinions, 14.19
- premiums, calculation of, 14.35–14.40, 14.51
- reasonable assured, 14.18–14.23, 14.28–14.29
- risk assessment, 14.41, 14.56
- social or policy view of good faith, 5.02
- subjectivity, 14.22
- valuation, 15.87
Prudent or reasonable underwriter, materiality and, 14.77–14.81
- application of duty of good faith, 1.37
- characteristics of prudent underwriter, 14.24–14.30
- circumstances, materiality of, 14.15, 14.129
- effect on the, 14.31–14.57
- inducement, 14.68
- misrepresentation, 14.42, 14.49, 14.88–14.90
- premiums, level of, 14.14
- reasonable assured and, 14.18–14.23
- risk, material to the, 14.63–14.72, 14.77–14.81
- time for applying the, 14.58–14.61
- variation, 14.84–14.87
- waiver, 8.74
Public domain, information in the, 12.29
Public offers see Shares publicly offered, contracts for purchase of
Public policy, 3.41, 6.25, 11.72, 11.103
Public records, access to, 8.32
Purpose of duty of good faith, 3.33–3.42
- concealment, technical, 3.33
- disclosure, full, 3.35, 3.38–3.42
- dishonesty, 3.38
- due diligence, 3.42
- enquiries, making, 3.35
- fraud, prevention of, 3.33–3.34, 3.39
- guarantees, contracts of, 3.42
- knowledge of parties, 3.34–3.37
- openness and probity, 3.40
- public policy, 3.41
- reciprocity, 3.36
- regulatory requirements, 3.41
- Page 732
  
  risk, 3.37
- sources of information, 3.35
- speculation, relationship as one of, 3.37
- utmost good faith, 3.36

Questions see also Enquiries
- absence of question, 8.57
- answered or unanswered, 8.62–8.65
- avoidance, 9.41
- basis clauses, 8.56, 9.14, 9.20, 9.39
- false or misleading representations, 7.86–7.89
- fraud, 9.41
- history of assured, insurance, 15.108
- implied waiver, 8.56–8.65
- incomplete answers, 8.63–8.64
- insurance policies, existence of other, 15.124
- investigations, 12.50
- knowledge, presumed, 9.36
- marine insurance, 9.41, 9.43
- materiality, 9.34–9.44
- misrepresentation, 9.41, 9.42, 9.44
- non-disclosure, 9.44
- non-marine insurance, 9.41–9.42–9.43
- placing, 9.34–9.44
- proposal forms, 9.38
- refusal, prior, 15.108
- selection of, 8.56–8.61
- waiver, 8.54–8.55, 9.38

Race discrimination, 6.44, 8.100, 15.14
Rating risks, discrimination and, 8.100
Reasonableness see also Prudent or reasonable underwriter
- additional premium clauses, 3.59
- claims, 12.52
- conduct, 17.98
- damages, 16.150
- discovery, 1.44
- enquiries, 12.51
- exemption clauses, 16.87
- experts, 18.10
- false or misleading representations, 7.89, 7.90
- fraud, 3.96, 3.99, 11.104
- knowledge, 7.101, 7.134–7.138, 8.75
- Law Commission, 1.38, 5.18
- materiality, 1.38, 5.18, 14.03, 14.06–14.07, 14.18–14.23, 14.80, 18.10
- opinions, 7.53, 7.55, 7.67–7.69
- placing, 3.10, 12.11, 12.14
- unfair contract terms, 11.104, 16.87
- valuation, 15.98
- warranties, 8.91, 9.12
Recklessness, 11.37–11.38, 11.68, 11.92, 14.120
Records
- conduct, 17.98
- enquiries, 12.31
- evidence, 18.15
- financial history and practices, 15.23
- knowledge, 7.133
- medical, 6.45, 7.133, 12.21
- placing, 12.21
- public, access to, 8.32
Recovery of premiums see Premiums, recovery of
Rectification, 7.27, 7.41–7.45, 9.22
Reform see Law reform
Refusal
- avoidance, 16.104
- history of assured, insurance, 15.106–15.110
- issue policies, to, 16.104
- marine insurance, 15.108
- prior, 15.108–15.110
- reinsurance, 15.115
Regulatory requirements, 3.41
Rehabilitation of offenders, 6.39–6.42
- avoidance, 6.42
- discretion, 6.41–6.42, 8.99
- fines, 6.40
- imprisonment, 6.40
- legislation, 6.39–6.42, 8.99
- materiality, 6.41–6.242, 15.38
- motor insurance, 6.42
- placing, 8.99
- spent convictions, 6.39–6.42, 8.99, 15.38
Reinsurance see also Reinsurance treaties
- agents, 13.55, 13.66
- basis clauses, 9.18
- business, nature and terms of, 15.116
- claims insurance, 15.113
- disclosure, materiality and, 1.29
- excess of loss policies, 15.119
- facultative reinsurance, 10.45, 15.119
- follow the settlements, 10.52
- fraud, 4.18
- fronting, 7.30
- history, insurance, 15.113
- identification of insurance contracts, 1.25
- identity of reassured, materiality of, 15.119
- indemnities, 1.25
- knowledge, 8.25, 8.28, 8.48, 8.82, 13.55
- Law Commission, 5.19
- life insurance, retention and, 15.112
- loss experience, 15.113
- material facts, examples of, 15.111–15.119
- misrepresentation, 1.54, 7.30, 15.115
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  pay to be paid clauses, 10.52
- pool, 1.29
- premium income, estimated, 15.114
- proportional, 15.119
- quota share, 15.119
- refusal by another reinsurer, prior, 15.115
- restitution, 16.123
- retention, 15.112
- risk assessment, 15.118
- termination, 13.04
- Third Parties (Rights against Insurers) Act 1930, 13.99
- waiver, 8.72–8.73
Reinsurance treaties
- acceptance of risk, 1.50–1.51
- application of duty of good faith, 1.34
- declarations, 1.50–1.52, 1.54
- materiality, 15.119
- misrepresentation, 1.54
- non-disclosure, 1.54
- obligatory, 1.54
- options, 1.52
- terms, 1.50–1.52
- time of making, 1.49–1.51
Rejection
- application of the duty of utmost good faith, 1.40
- claims, 11.108, 11.111, 12.51, 12.54
- claims co-operation clause, 10.47
- continuation of duty, 11.108, 11.111
- fraud, 11.108, 11.111, 12.51, 12.54
- termination, 3.81
Related property, 15.73–15.76
- cargo, 15.74–15.76
- knowledge, 15.75
- seaworthiness, 15.74–15.75
- vessels, 15.74–15.76
- voyage policies, 15.74–15.75
Reliance
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.94, 17.117
- cancellation, 17.146
- co-insurers, 13.42, 13.46
- conduct, 17.117, 17.141
- damages, 16.150
- delay, 17.154, 17.159–17.161
- detriment, 17.139–17.140, 17.155
- fraud, 7.15
- inactivity, 17.154, 17.159–17.161
- inducement, 14.107, 14.116
- inferences, 14.116
- laches, 159
- promissory estoppel, 17.132–17.138, 17.145–17.146
- silence, 17.154, 17.159–17.161
- warranties, breach of, 17.145
Remedies, 16.01–16.166
- see also Avoidance; Damages; Remedies, fraudulent claims and; Restitution; Termination
- account of profits, 16.11
- available, 16.14–16.31
- avoidance, 4.56–4.60
- cancellation, 16.103–16.104
- common law, 4.57, 4.59, 16.03–16.13
- consideration, total failure of, 4.52
- deceit, 4.53
- delivery up, 16.103–16.104
- difficulties, 16.14
- equity, 4.31, 4.54–4.60, 16.03–16.04, 16.09–16.13
- forfeiture, 11.118–11.119, 11.126–11.129
- inducement, 4.51
- injunctions, 16.146
- law merchant, 16.02
- misrepresentation, 4.25, 4.27, 4.51–4.57, 4.60, 6.34–6.38, 7.36, 7.41, 16.02
- placing, 7.03, 7.08–7.10
- reasonable time, failure to pay in, 16.30–16.31
- rescission, 4.51
- silence, 7.36, 7.37
- source of duty of utmost good faith, 4.51–4.60
- specific performance, 16.146
- statutory intervention, 16.15–16.16
- utmost good faith, 11.117–11.136
- unfair presentation of risk by assured, 16.17–16.26
  - Remedies, fraudulent claims and, 11.07–11.09, 16.27–16.29
  - see Avoidance of fraudulent claims
- continuation of duty, 11.117
- contractual remedies, 11.133–11.136
- forfeiture, 11.118–11.119, 11.126–11.129
- fraudulent devices, 11.71
- inducement, 11.28
- Insurance Act 2015, 11.130–11.132, 16.27
- litigation, commencement of, 11.108
- misrepresentation, 4.56, 11.28
- non-liability, 16.28
- recovery of payments, 16.28
- source of, 4.52–4.53
- termination, 16.29
- tortious liability, 12.50
- types of claims, 11.47–11.48
  - wilful misconduct, 11.48
Renewals
- adjustment of obligations, 3.61, 10.41–10.43
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.114
- avoidance, 3.61, 10.41–10.43
- changes in circumstances, 5.21
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  conduct, 17.114
- continuation of duty, 3.28
- disclosure, 3.61, 5.21
- fraud, 10.42
- inducement, 10.43
- insurance policies, existence of other, 15.128
- law reform, 5.21
- life insurance, 10.42
- materiality, 3.61, 10.43, 14.80
- misrepresentation, 10.41–10.43
- moral hazard, 10.43
- non-disclosure, 10.41
- post-contractual duty, 10.41–10.43
- pre-contractual disclosure, 3.61, 10.41
- representations, 3.61, 10.42
- warnings, 5.21
Replacement policies, 17.113
Representations see also False or misleading representations; Misrepresentation
- agents, 13.49, 13.65–13.67, 13.89
- basis clauses, 9.07–9.09, 9.13, 9.17–9.20, 9.23, 9.27–9.33
- breaches of, 7.48
- brokers, 13.78–13.79
- burden of proof, 18.02
- estoppel, 17.35–17.38, 17.41
- evidence, 18.16
- implied representations, 7.31–7.34, 7.37–7.38, 7.50–7.56, 7.65
- incorporated into documents, 7.47
- information only, for, 7.47
- intention, 7.70–7.75
- law of, 7.76–7.80
- margins of policy, 7.47
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 6.07
- opinions, 7.450–7.69
- renewals, 3.61, 10.42
- substantial truth, 7.48
- waiver, 8.50–8.51
- warranties, 7.46–7.48
Representations of law
- agents, 7.77
- disclosure, 7.76
- facts, representations of, 7.76–7.80
- foreign law, 7.76, 7.80
- fraud, 7.78
- illegality, 7.76–7.77
- misrepresentation, 7.76–7.78
- negligence, 7.77
- warranties, 7.76
Repudiation
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.102, 17.117
- aviation insurance, 5.21
- avoidance, 11.135
- claims, delay and, 5.21
- damages, 12.51
- forfeiture, 16.111
- fraudulent claims, 3.66, 11.133, 11.136
- law reform, 5.21
- marine insurance, 5.21
- misrepresentation, 5.21
- mutuality, 3.95
- non-disclosure, 5.21
- post-contractual duty, 10.15
- promissory estoppel, 17.144
- termination, 16.96–16.97, 16.100
- waiver, 17.24
- warranties, breach of, 5.21
Rescission see Avoidance or rescission
Reservation of rights
- affirm of avoid, election to, 17.112–17.113, 17.165, 17.169
- avoidance, 16.62
- claims, payment of, 17.166
- conduct, 17.168
- enquiries, 17.166
- explicit reservation, 17.168
- implied reservation, 17.167
- knowledge, 17.169
- promissory estoppel, 17.169
- warranties, breach of, 17.169
Residence, materiality of, 15.15
Restitution, 16.122–16.124
- avoidance, 16.63–16.70, 16.123, 16.161–16.162
- claims, proceeds of, 16.122
- damages, 16.147, 16.161–16.162, 16.166
- fraud, 16.64–16.65, 16.68, 16.122
- indemnities, 16.123
- marine insurance, 16.64, 16.122
- money had and received, 16.122
- purpose, 16.124
- reinsurance, 16.123
- third parties, 16.123
Revival of duty, 3.54
Rights, knowledge of, 17.72–17.87, 17.124–17.129
Risk see also Risk assessment
- acceptance, 1.50–1.51
- adjustment of obligations, 3.57
- connection to the, 14.89
- diminution of, 8.06–8.11, 14.69, 14.79
- discrimination, 8.100
- fair presentation of, 6.18, 7.05–7.06, 7.23, 8.52, 8.68
- evidence, 8.09–8.10
- expert evidence, 8.09–8.10
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 8.09
- materiality, 8.08–8.09
- materiality, 14.62–14.81, 14.89
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  misrepresentation, 7.23
- normal and unusual, 8.26–8.31
- open cover, 1.50–1.51
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.63–14.72, 14.77–14.81
- rating, discrimination and, 8.100
- security arrangements, 8.11
- termination, 3.46, 3.52
- unfair presentation by assured, 16.17–16.26
- variations, 10.19, 10.22–10.26
Risk assessment
- assured,
  - identification of, 15.06
  - insurance history of, 15.100–15.101
- co-insurers, 13.44
- enquiries, 12.25–12.32
- history of assured, insurance, 15.100–15.101
- identification of insurance contracts, 1.25
- identity of the assured, 15.06
- inducement, 14.94
- insurer’s duty, 12.24–12.37
- judgement and skill, 12.33, 12.37
- London market practice, 12.34
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 12.34
- materiality, 12.33, 12.36, 14.14
- premiums, calculation of, 12.35
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.41, 14.56
- purpose of duty, 3.37
- reinsurance, 15.119
Road Traffic Acts, 6.25–6.32, 13.101
Rumours, allegations, communications and intelligence
- agents, 7.81
- burden of proof, 18.08
- current intelligence, 7.82
- disclosure, 7.81–7.85
- dishonesty, 7.84
- facts, 7.81–7.85
- materiality, 7.81–7.85, 15.39–15.44
- media reports, 7.85
- misrepresentation, 7.83
- moral hazard, 15.39–15.44
- opinions, 7.66
- past intelligence, 7.82
- pleadings, 18.08
- standard of proof, 18.09
- unconscionability, 17.11
- verification, 7.83

Salvage
- Admiralty Court jurisdiction, 2.30
- disclosure, full, 2.30
- knowledge, 2.29
- lump sum, 2.30
- materiality, 9.34, 14.66
- reward, 2.30
- utmost good faith, 2.29–2.30
Scandal-mongering, 15.45
Scuttling, 1.44
Seaworthiness
- agents, fraud of, 11.95
- knowledge, 8.77
- privity of assured, 8.91, 11.95
- related property, 15.74–15.75
- waiver, 17.41
- warranties, 8.89, 8.91 17.41
Security
- advice, 17.148
- assignees, 13.08, 13.13
- conduct, 17.148
- debt, for, 13.08, 13.13
- diminution of risk, 8.11
- financial history and practices, 15.23
- materiality, 15.71–15.72
- measures, 17.148
- promissory estoppel, 17.148
- warranties, 8.90
Self-incrimination, privilege against, 8.100
Settlements see Compromise
Severance, 17.102, 17.103, 17.107–17.108
Sex discrimination, 6.44, 8.100
Shares publicly offered, contracts for purchase of, 2.31–2.32
- directors, 2.31
- disclosure, 2.31–2.32
- fiduciary relationships, 2.31
- Financial Services and Markets Act 2000, 2.32
- Listing Rules, 2.32
- materiality, 2.31
- promoters, 2.31–2.32
- prospectuses, 2.31–2.32
- silence, 2.32
- utmost good faith, 2.31–2.32
Ships see Marine insurance; Ship’s papers, discovery for; Vessels
Ship’s papers, discovery of, 1.44–1.47
- continuation of duty, 11.109–11.110, 11.113
- discretion, 11.109
- fraud, 11.109–11.110, 11.113
- investigations, 3.76
- post-contractual duty, 10.07
Silence
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.94
- avoidance, 16.61, 17.94, 17.150, 17.153, 17.155–17.157
- change in circumstances, 7.45
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  conduct, 17.99, 17.130, 17.132, 17.150–17.161
- deceit, 7.35
- false impressions, 7.38–7.43
- implied representations, 7.37–7.38
- materiality, 7.37, 7.39, 7.44
- misrepresentation, 7.35–7.45
- non-disclosure, 7.37–7.38
- omissions, 7.38
- promissory estoppel, 17.130, 17.132, 17.150–17.161
- rectification, 7.41–7.45
- remedies, 7.36, 7.42
- shares publicly offered, contracts for purchase of, 2.31–2.32
- utmost good faith, 7.36
- waiver, 8.51
Slips
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.112
- formation of contract, 10.11, 10.14
- insurance instruments, 1.48
- issue of policies, 12.43–12.46
- lines, 1.48
- Lloyd’s, 10.11
- signing, 1.48, 10.11, 10.14, 12.43–12.46, 17.112
- terms, 1.48
Social or policy view of good faith, 5.01–5.07
- avoidance, 5.07
- basis clauses, negotiation of, 5.04
- disclosure, 5.01–5.07
- fairness, 5.06
- fraud, 5.02
- honour, insurer bound in, 5.01
- insurers, advantageous position of, 5.03–5.04
- materiality, 5.02–5.03
- placing, 5.01
- proposal forms, statements in, 5.04
- underwriters, prudent, 5.02
- universal provisions, 5.04
- viability of insurance industry, 5.05
Source of duty of utmost good faith, 4.01–4.62
- common law, 4.02–4.05, 4.08, 4.13–4.15, 4.31, 4.62
- custom, 4.08
- equity, 4.15, 4.62
- fraud, 4.11, 4.18–4.24
- insurance policies, development of, 4.08
- law merchant, 4.02–4.17, 4.61
- Lloyd’s, establishment of, 4.10
- misrepresentation, 4.25–4.29
- natural law, 4.02–4.03
- non-disclosure, 4.30–4.50
- post-contractual duty, 10.06
- pre-contractual duty, 10.06
- remedies for breach of duty, 4.51–4.60
- tribunals, 4.08
Specific performance, 16.146
Speculation, 3.35, 7.64–7.69
Spouses, contracts between, 2.25–2.28
- disclosure, duty of full, 2.25
- family provision, 2.27
- intention to create legal relations, 2.26
- maintenance agreements, 2.27
- materiality, 2.26
Squatters, knowledge of, 8.29
Stamped policies, 12.40
Standard of proof, 11.43, 18.09
Statements of Insurance Practice
- claims, 12.56
- Law Commission, 5.18
- law reform, 5.20–5.22
- proposal forms, 1.42
- waiver, 8.54, 8.61
Storage, 15.69
Structured duty, good faith as a, 3.01–3.21
Subject-matter
- contracts and other arrangements, 15.129
- knowledge, 7.114
- materiality, 14.67, 15.02, 15.50–15.82
Subrogation
- avoidance, 10.53
- claims, 3.76, 10.53
- fraud, 10.53
- law merchant, 4.07
- materiality, 14.66, 14.78
- utmost good faith, 10.53
Sue and labour, 14.113
Suretyship, contracts of see Guarantees or surety contracts
Suspicion, 7.65, 7.104, 11.85

Tailoring duty of good faith, 3.22–3.32
Technical breaches of duty, 1.44, 3.33, 4.19
Termination of duty
- agreements on contacts of insurance, 3.45–3.46
- alteration of risk, 3.52
- avoidance, 3.49, 3.81, 3.783, 10.61, 10.65, 10.70
- cancellation, 3.49
- claims, 10.69
- declarations, 3.48–3.50
- disclosure, 3.46, 3.48–3.52, 3.80–3.81
- fidelity policies, 3.51
- floating policies, 3.49
- fraudulent claims, 3.81–3.83, 10.69
- further disclosure, 3.47, 3.50
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  litigation, commencement of, 3.81–3.82, 10.69
- materiality, 3.48, 3.50–3.52
- misrepresentation, 3.81
- non-disclosure of material facts, 3.46, 3.48–3.52
- open cover, 3.48
- placing, 3.45–3.52
- post-contractual duty, 10.67–10.70
- presentation of the risk, 3.46
- rejection of claims, 3.81
- risk, 3.46, 3.52
- terms, 3.46, 3.48
- utmost good faith, 10.67–10.70
Termination of insurance contracts, 16.96–16.102
- see also Avoidance
- affirmation, 16.96
- avoidance, 10.61, 10.62
- breach of duty, 16.97, 16.100–16.102
- claims co-operation clause, 10.46
- damages, 16.96
- directive on insurance contracts, proposal for, 5.14
- fair presentation of risk, 16.98
- forfeiture, 16.101
- fraud, 16.101
- misrepresentation, 16.99
- repudiation, 16.96–16.98, 16.100
Terminology, 1.03
Terms see also Clauses; Implied terms; Unfair contract terms; Warranties
- binding authority, 1.28
- damages, 16.141, 16.143–16.144
- explanation of the, 12.27–12.42
- innominate, 10.46–10.47
- open cover, 1.50–1.52
- promissory, 4.35
- reinsurance treaties, 1.50–1.52
- slips, 1.48
- termination, 3.46, 3.48
Testimony of parties, 18.15–18.16
Third parties, 13.01–13.101 see also Agents; Assignees; Co-assureds; Co-insurers; Legal advisers
- avoidance, 6.30, 13.101, 16.69
- Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999, 13.03
- delay, 17.150
- discovery, 1.44–1.47
- fraud, 13.03
- inactivity, 17.150
- inducement, 13.03
- intention, 7.64–7.76
- knowledge, 13.04
- marine insurance, 1.44–1.47
- materiality, 13.03–13.05
- misrepresentation, 7.28–7.29, 13.03
- moral hazard, 15.26
- motor insurance, 6.02, 6.25–6.30, 9.24, 13.101
- negligence, 13.03
- privity of contract, 13.03, 13.98–13.100
- reinsurers, 13.04
- restitution, 16.123
- silence, 17.150
- Third Parties (Rights against Insurers) Act 1930, 13.98–13.100
- Third Parties (Rights against Insurers) Act 2010, 13.98–13.100
Third Parties (Rights against Insurers) Act1930, 13.98–13.100
- bankruptcy, 13.98,13.100
- breach of duty, 13.96
- disclosure, 13.100
- information, 13.100
- insolvency, 13.96, 13.100
- liability, 13.98–13.100
- property insurance, 13.99
- reinsurance, 13.99
Third Parties (Rights against Insurers) Act2010, 13.98–13.100
Time limits
- acquiescence, 17.164
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.05–17.06
- avoidance, 17.164
- damages, 17.164
- laches, 17.164
- motor insurance, 6.27, 13.101
- warranty, breach of, 17.164
Title to sue, 13.08
Tortiousliability see also Negligence
- co-insurers, 13.41
- damages, 16.153–16.156, 16.163
- remedies, 12.50
Trade usage
- expert evidence, 18.13
- knowledge, 7.115, 8.41–8.44
- nature of duty of utmost good faith, 3.20
- waiver, 8.83
Transport insurance, 1.37
Trivial falsity, 7.93, 7.95, 11.40–11.41
Trusts
- assignees, 13.15–13.18
- breach of, 16.147
- damages, 16.147
- trustees, 13.15–13.18
Truth see also False or misleading representations
- basis clauses, 9.06, 9.08–9.09, 9.13–9.20, 9.31
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  motor insurance, 9.24
- substantial, 7.48
- warranties, 9.14
- Uberrimae fidei/Uberrimae fides see also Utmost good faith
- commercial contracts, 1.07, 1.31
- designation of contracts as, 1.10
- disclosure, 1.24

Unconscionability
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.09–17.17
- avoidance, 17.10–17.17
- common law, 17.10
- damages, 17.13
- discretion, 17.16
- equity, 17.10–17.13
- fair dealing, principle of, 17.14–17.15
- inducement, 17.13
- insurers, 17.10–17.14
- intelligence, disclosure of, 17.11
- jurisdiction, 17.13
- post-contractual duty, 17.10
- proportionality, 17.14–17.15
- utmost good faith, 17.09
- waiver, 17.08, 17.37
- warranties, breach of, 17.17
Undertakings, letters of, 1.27, 13.21
Underwriters see also Prudent or reasonable underwriter
- attitudes of, 15.106–15.110
- following, 13.36–13.48
- fraud, 3.96, 3.99
- history of assured, insurance, 15.106–15.110
- judgment and skill of, 13.40, 13.45–13.46
- knowledge, 8.18, 8.48
- leading underwriters, 13.36–13.48
- marine insurance, attitudes of other underwriters
- and, 15.109
- materiality, 1.40
- opinions, 1.40
- rejection of risk, 1.40
Undue influence, 12.39, 16.162
Unfair contract terms
- basis clauses, 6.57, 9.25
- consumer contracts, 6.54–6.57, 9.25, 11.104
- directive, 6.54–6.57, 9.25
- exemption clauses, 16.87
- explain the terms, duty to, 12.39
- fraudulent claims clauses, 11.104
- implementation, 6.55
- legislation, 6.54–6.57, 9.25
- materiality, 6.56, 9.24
- negotiated, terms individually, 6.56
- plain, intelligible language, 6.56, 9.26
- reasonableness, 11.104, 16.87
- standard forms, 6.56
Unfair presentation of risk, 16.17–16.26
- available remedies, 16.26, 17.01
- avoidance, 16.166
- consumer, 16.17
- cumulative remedies, 16.25
- deliberate failure, 16.18–16.19
- different terms, 16.21
- higher premium, charged, 16.23–16.24
- inducement, 16.19
- non-consumer, 16.17
- premium, 16.20
- reckless failure, 16.18–16.19
Untruth see False or misleading representations; Misrepresentation
Updated information, 13.82
Use
- avoidance, 15.68
- change of use, 15.68–15.69
- current use, 15.66–15.67
- deviation, 8.91, 15.69, 15.80
- intention, 15.67–15.69
- materiality of, 15.64–15.70
- misrepresentation, 15.68
- premises, 8.59
- previous use, 15.65
- vessels,
- current use, 15.67
- deviation, 8.91, 15.69, 15.80
- employment, 15.67
- previous use, 15.65
- voyage of, 15.69
Utmost good faith see also Breach of duty; Continuation of the duty
- acknowledgment of applications, 3.16
- application of duty, 1.34–1.38, 1.47
- assignees, 13.21–13.24
- avoidance, 3.16, 10.15–10.18, 10.61–10.66, 11.120–11.124, 16.32–16.95
- binding authority, 1.28
- brokers, 13.87
- candour, degree of, 2.04
- causation, 3.05
- caveat emptor, 2.04
- circumstances for, 2.06
- claims, 11.01–11.136
- classification of contracts, 2.06–2.08
- co-assured, 13.06
- co-insurers, 13.06
- common law, 4.02–4.05, 4.08, 4.13–4.15, 4.31, 4.62, 10.04
- comparison with ordinary contracts, 2.02–2.08
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  compromise, 1.31
- concealment, 2.04
- contracts, 1.03, 1.06, 1.12, 1.34, 1.44–1.47, 2.01–2.37, 11.133–11.136
- damages, 16.125–16.126
- definition, 3.04
- disclosure, 2.03–2.07
- fair and open dealing, 2.07
- fair presentation, duty of, 6.18, 8.52, 8.68
- families, settlements between, 2.25–2.28
- fiduciaries, disclosure by, 2.06, 2.32–2.37
- forfeiture, 11.117–11.118, 11.126–11.129
- formation of contract, 10.09
- fraud, 1.38, 6.23
- guarantees/sureties, 2.09–2.21
- held covered clauses, 3.58
- identification of insurance contracts, 1.22, 1.25, 1.26, 1.317–1.32
- implied terms, 6.18
- insurer’s duty, 12.02–12.04
- investigations of claims, 3.76
- knowledge, 6.18, 8.13
- Law Commission, 1.38
- law merchant, 4.15–4.17
- life insurance, 1.12
- marine insurance, 1.12, 1.39, 3.02
- materiality, 1.39
- meaning, 1.13
- misrepresentation, 2.04, 7.37
- mutuality, 10.03
- nature of duty of, 3.01–3.103
- negligence, 1.38
- negotiations, 1.39, 2.02–2.03
- partnerships, 2.22–2.24
- performance, 10.54–10.61
- placing, 3.17
- post-contractual duty, 10.01–10.08, 10.15–10.17, 10.67–10.70
- pre-contractual duty, 6.18
- purpose of duty, 3.36
- remedies, 3.16, 11.117–11.136
- salvage contracts, 2.29–2.30
- shares publicly offered, contracts for purchase of, 2.31–2.32
- ship’s papers, discovery of, 1.44–1.47
- silence, 7.37
- source of duty, 4.01–4.62
- spouses, contracts between, 2.25–2.28
- termination, 10.67–10.70
- types of contracts subject to, 1.39, 2.01–2.37
- unconscionability, 17.09

Valuation
- avoidance, 15.90, 15.95, 15.98
- declarations, 1.53
- excessive value, 11.60–11.64, 15.83–15.98, 15.124, 15.126
- floating policies, 1.53
- fraud, 15.86, 15.89–15.96
- grossly excessive 15.97
- insurance policies, existence of other, 15.124, 15.126
- knowledge, presumed, 15.94
- marine insurance, 15.93–15.97
  - avoidance, 15.95
  - fraud, 15.94–15.96
  - knowledge, presumed, 15.94
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 15.93–15.97
- materiality, 15.83–15.99
- misrepresentation, 15.89, 15.95–15.96, 15.98
- moral hazard, 15.28
- opinions, 15.84, 15.86, 15.96
- over valuation, 15.83–15.99
- performance, 10.56–10.58
- prudent underwriter test, 15.89
- reasonableness, 15.98
- under valuation, 15.83
- unvalued policies, 15.89, 15.92
Variations
- addendum, by, 17.118
- additional risk, 10.19, 10.22–10.26
- adjustment of obligations, 3.53–3.55, 10.16–10.17, 10.19–10.43
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.118
- avoidance, 10.22, 16.72–16.73
- conduct, 17.118
- cover, fundamental alteration to the, 10.25
- endorsement, 3.64, 10.23
- formation of contract, 10.09, 10.14
- insurers, by, 10.21
- materiality, 10.19–10.26, 14.60, 14.73, 14.84–14.90, 16.72–16.73
- misrepresentation, 10.22, 10.24
- mutuality, 10.21
- non-consumer contracts, 10.26
- non-disclosure, 10.22, 10.24
- post-contractual duty, 3.57, 10.19–10.26
- pre-contractual duty, 3.53–3.54
- prudent or reasonable underwriter, 14.84–14.87
Vessels see also Cargo; Marine insurance; Seaworthiness
- age, of, 15.57
- class of, 15.81–15.82
- current use, 15.67
- deviation, 8.91, 15.69, 15.80
- employment, of, 15.67
- identification of, 15.53–15.55
- insurable interests, in, 15.62
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  intended use, 15.69
- knowledge, 8.43, 15.57
- licences, 15.81–15.82
- nationality, 15.81–15.82
- ownership, 15.62–15.63
- previous use, 15.65
- registration, 15.81–15.82
- related property, nature of, 15.74–15.76
- salvage, 2.29–2.30, 9.36, 14.66
- use, 15.65, 15.67, 15.69
- voyage, location and timing of, 15.77–15.80
Vicarious liability, 11.82, 13.20, 13.64
Voidable or void contracts
- assignees, 13.13–13.14, 13.19
- avoidance, 16.36–16.40, 16.53, 16.80
- basis clauses, 9.06
- forfeiture, 11.128, 16.106
- fraud, 11.99–11.102, 16.38–16.40
- misrepresentation, 7.48
Voluntary assumption of responsibility, 16.152
Voyage
- departure date, 15.79
- deviation, 15.80
- location of vessel, 15.77–15.80
- misrepresentations, 15.77
- policies, 15.74–15.75, 15.77
- ports, at or from, 15.77, 15.80
- loading or discharge, 15.77–15.78
- materiality, 15.77
- related property, 15.74–15.75
- timing, 15.77–15.80
- voyage policies, 15.77
- warranties, 8.91

Waiver
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.19–17.52, 17.79
  - burden of proof, 17.162–17.163, 18.02, 18.05
  - conduct, 17.79, 17.96
  - knowledge, 17.71, 17.92
  - promissory estoppel, 17.122–17.123
  - warranties, breach of, 17.08
- agents, 13.68–13.71
- application of the duty of utmost good faith, 1.42
- avoidance, 17.19–17.21
- basis clause, 8.56, 17.22, 17.28–17.31
- breach of duty, 17.19–17.21, 17.32
- brokers, 8.53
- burden of proof, 17.162–17.163, 18.02, 18.05
- commission, disclosure of, 8.72
- conduct, 17.48–17.51, 17.96
- confidentiality, 8.95
- consumer insurance, 8.60
- custom, 8.83
- declarations, 8.62
- delay, 17.154
- details, 8.67
- disclosure, exceptions to, 8.49–8.83
- election, by, 17.08, 17.19–17.52
- enquiries, 8.51, 8.65, 8.69–8.74, 8.77–8.78, 8.81
- estoppel, 8.50–8.51
  - promissory, 17.08, 17.21–17.22, 17.29–17.39, 17.41–17.52, 17.122–17.123, 17.134, 17.145–17.146
  - representation, by, 17.35–17.38, 17.41
- exceptions to disclosure, 8.49–8.83
- experts, 18.14
- express, 8.53
- fire insurance policies, 8.58
- fraud, 17.31
- house insurance, 8.60
- identification of property, 15.52
- implied representations, 8.50
- implied waiver, 8.54–8.65
- inactivity, 17.154
- incomplete answers, 8.62–8.63
- inducement, 14.113
- knowledge, 8.50, 8.64, 8.66, 8.75–8.82
- life insurance, 8.64
- loss experience, disclosure of, 8.70, 8.73
- marine insurance, 17.23
- Marine Insurance Act 1906, 17.23–17.48
  - codification, as, 17.40
  - consolidating Act, as, 17.44
  - promissory estoppel, 17.35–17.39, 17.44–17.52
- market practice, 8.83
- materiality,
  - application of the duty of utmost good faith, 1.42
  - custom, 8.83
  - details, 8.67
  - disclosure of, 8.49, 8.54, 8.56–8.65
  - summary of, 8.66–8.74
- misrepresentation, 8.65, 17.22, 17.30
- non-disclosure, 17.30
- placing, 8.49–8.83, 9.05
- pre-contractual duty of disclosure, 8.49
- previous convictions, 15.33
- promissory estoppel,
  - affirm or avoid, election to, 17.122–17.123
  - avoidance, 17.21
  - Marine Insurance Act 1906, 17.08
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    reliance, 17.134, 17.145
  - warranties, breach of, 17.22, 17.29–17.39, 17.41–17.52
- proposal forms, 8.56–8.59, 8.62, 9.38
- questions, 8.54–8.56
  - absence of question, 8.57
  - answered or unanswered, 8.62–8.65
  - basis clause, 8.56
  - implied waiver, 8.56–8.61
  - incomplete answers, 8.63–8.64
  - proposal forms, 9.38
  - selection of, 8.56–8.61
- reinsurance, 8.72–8.73
- representations, 8.50–8.51
- repudiation, 17.24
- seaworthiness, warranties of, 17.41
- silence, 8.51, 17.154
- Statement of General Insurance Practice, 8.54, 8.61
- Statement of Long-Term Insurance Practice, 8.54
- summary of material facts, 8.66–8.74
- terminology, 17.19
- trade usage, 8.83
- types of policies, 8.58
- unconscionability, 17.09, 17.37
- underwriters, reasonable and prudent, 8.74
- use of premises, 8.59
- warranties, breach of, 17.08, 17.22–17.52
War risks policies
- additional premium clauses, 10.33, 11.66–11.68
- assignment, 1.27
- fraudulent devices, 11.66–11.68
- identification of insurance contracts, 1.27
- letters of undertakings, 1.27
- mortgagees, assignment to, 1.27
- protection and indemnity clubs, letters of undertakings and, 1.27
- speak, duty to, 1.27
- utmost good faith, 1.24
Warranties see also Basis clauses
- accuracy of facts, 9.16
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.08, 17.116–17.117
- ambiguity, 9.14
- avoidance, 8.86–8.87, 8.91, 16.80
- breach,
  - delay, inactivity or silence, 17.153–17.154, 17.159
  - fraudulent devices, 11.69–11.68
  - misrepresentation, 7.428
  - repudiation, 5.21
  - reservation of rights, 17.169
  - time limits, 17.164
  - unconscionability, 17.15
  - waiver of, 7.48, 17.08, 17.22–17.52
- burden of proof, 18.02
- business practices, 7.134
- co-assured, 9.17
- conditions, 8.91
- continuing, 7.73, 8.86, 9.2
- course of business, 9.11
- definition, 8.85
- delay, 8.91, 17.153–17.155, 17.159
- descriptive of risk, 3.58, 8.85, 9.10–9.12
- deviation, 8.91
- disclosure, exceptions to, 8.84–8.92
- documents, incorporated into, 7.47
- enquiries, 8.89, 8.91
- exemption clauses, 16.88
- experts, 9.16
- fraud, 9.17, 11.69–11.71
- health, 15.19–15.20
- held covered clauses, 3.58
- illegality, 15.122
- implied, 8.89
- inactivity, 17.153–17.155, 17.159
- intention, 7.73
- interpretation, 9.12, 9.14
- knowledge, 7.134, 9.16–9.17
- language, natural and ordinary, 9.14
- marine insurance, 8.88, 8.89, 8.91, 15.1 18.22
  - Marine Insurance Act 1906, 8.88, 8.89, 8.91
- materiality, 7.48, 8.86–8.92, 9.11
- misrepresentation, 7.48, 8.90–8.91
- non-disclosure, 4.35
- occurrence of certain events, 8.91
- opinions, 9.16
- placing, 8.04, 8.84–8.92, 9.06–9.33
- post-contractual duty of disclosure, 8.86
- pre-contractual duty of disclosure, 8.86–8.87
- premiums, 8.89
- privity of the assured, 8.91
- promissory estoppel, 17.125–17.128, 17.131, 17.136–17.137, 17.142–17.149
- promissory warranties, 3.58, 8.85–8.86, 9.10–9.11, 9.32
- proposal forms, 9.11
- reasonableness, 8.91, 9.12
- reliance, 17.145
- representations, 7.46–7.48, 7.76, 9.27–9.33
- repudiation, 5.21
- reservation of rights, 17.169
- seaworthiness, 8.89, 8.91, 17.41
- security, 8.90
- strict compliance, 7.48, 9.09, 9.11–9.12
- superfluity by reason of, 8.84–8.92
- time limits, 17.164
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  truth, 9.14
- types of, 8.85
- unconscionability, 17.15
- voyage, change of, 8.91
- waiver, 7.48, 17.08, 17.22–17.52
Wilful blindness
- fraud, 11.85
- knowledge, 3.17, 7.104–7.106, 7.133
- opinions, 7.55
Wilful misconduct, 11.48, 13.64
Words
- affirm or avoid, election to, 17.54, 17.96
- conduct, 17.96

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Good Faith and Insurance Contracts

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Index

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