Shipping and the Environment

Colin De La Rue; Charles Anderson; Jonathan Hare

Document

Page 1329

Index

Abnormally dangerous activities 570, 674, 1097
Access to places of refuge. see Places of refuge for ships
Access to territorial seas and ports 1044–1060
Acts of God
- CERCLA (United States) 404–405, 731
- definition 241
  - international compensation Conventions. see Natural phenomenon
  - Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 241–242
Act of war
- CERCLA (United States) 404–405, 731
- Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 242
Acts or omissions
- CERCLA (United States) 404–406
- charterers 675–683
- claimants
  - Civil Liability Conventions 133, 760
  - Fund Conventions 127, 180, 185, 384, 1280
  - Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 378
  - hip management 717
  - limitation of liability 233, 249–250, 903, 922, 924–925, 1262
  - navigational aids 136, 180, 384, 1135
  - Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 247
Admiralty jurisdiction
- Admiralty Extension Act (United States) 220, 269, 276–277, 508
- maritime liens 218, 220
- tort 220
- United States 217–220
Admissibility of claims. see Claims
Admittance to ports 616–617, 865–869, 873, 1044–1060
Advertisements, OPA-90 claims procedure 258
Agriculture, effect of oil spill on 1302
Air pollution
- Clean Air Act (United States) 1020–1022
- compensation under international conventions
  - health claims 434
  - smoke and soot 433, 487
  - windblown oil spray 434, 483, 547
- components 60
- criminal liability (United States) 1307
- emissions reductions 984
- prevention (MARPOL) 34–35, 53, 976–994
- zero-emission fuels 92
AIS 952, 1022–1025, 1239
Alcohol testing 1316
Alter egos
- affiliates 722
- Amoco Cadiz 725–726
- arrest of ships 721
- CERCLA (United States) 724–725
- Civil Liability Conventions 381, 720
- companies 146, 721, 725
- continuity of enterprise theory 727
- costs 864–874
- damages 146, 152, 381
- dissolution 727–728
- enforcement 328
- environmental damage 439–440, 557, 559–562, 568
- Fund Conventions 152
- guarantors 206–207, 648, 825–854
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 380
- insurance 810–811
- liability 720–727
- limitation of liability 152, 381, 720
- negligence 249–251, 392–396, 570
- Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 725
- parent/subsidiary liability 721–723, 725
- partnership 720, 723
- P&I Clubs 810–811
- piercing the corporate veil 720, 724–725
- registered owners 720–727
- shareholder liability 723–724
- sister ships 721
- subsidiaries 721–723, 725
- successor corporations 726–727
- United States 721–727
- Amoco Cadiz incident 38–39
- 1984 Protocols, led to 40–41
- alter egos, liability of 725–726
- associated parties, liability of 725–726
- Civil Liability Conventions
  - application to incident of CLC 139, 149
  - channelling provisions 40, 139, 143, 149, 652, 716
  - claims in non-CLC states 148–149, 166, 718
  - parties other than shipowner, claims against 97, 149, 716
  - “servants or agents” of shipowner 141–143
- common law, liability at 280–282, 491–502, 516–519, 569–574, 720
- economic loss 434–437
- fixed costs
  - “committed costs” 463
  - equipment on standby 285
  - overheads 238–239, 409, 464, 466
  - salaries and equipment 450, 463–465
- incident, summary 38
- intervention 1042–1043
- litigation in United States, summary 502
- managers, liability of 38, 40, 716, 718, 720, 726
- Page 1330
  
  negligence 38–41, 143, 149, 282, 652, 726
- operators, liability of 261–267
- parent company, liability of 39, 138–139, 282, 725, 780
- salvage
  - changes in law, led to 41, 609
  - claims against salvors 38, 41, 652
Angling clubs 547–548
Antarctic. see Polar operations
Anti-fouling Convention 1327
Anti-fouling systems 994–997
Aquacultural stocks 482, 520–525
Aquatic invasive species 998, 1022–1027
Arbitration
- Lloyd’s Open Form 609, 632–633
- P&I Clubs 852, 854
- salvage, United States 657–659
Arctic. see Polar operations
Area Contingency Plans 1078–1080
Area exercises 1115–1116
Arrest of ships
- actual fault or privity 38–40, 923–927
- alter egos 721
- burden of proof 927
- Civil Liability Convention 1969 168
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 167–169
- Limitation of Liability Convention 1957 168
- Limitation of Liability Convention 1976 168
- national laws 167, 199, 218
- Nissos Amorgos 167–168, 201, 1250, 1280
- P&I Clubs 199, 770, 774, 1138
- public authorities 69, 201, 1250, 1280, 1283
- Seki 168
- sister 721
  - Wreck Removal Convention 1138
Asset Conservation Act (United States) 777, 785–787
Assignment
- charterers 232, 704–705
- Fund Conventions, rights under 704–705
Automatic ship identification systems (AIS) 952
Autonomous craft 92
Autopilots 1013
Average. see General average, Particular average

Ballast and ballast voyages
- bunker spills 97, 102, 119, 337, 831
- Civil Liability Convention 1969 97
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 97–170, 344, 652–653, 716–718
- emissions 11, 942, 1022, 1026
- double hulls 1013
- Fund Convention 1992 129, 180, 1327
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 370
- MARPOL 973, 975
- OILPOL 54, 22, 464
- segregated ballast tanks 966
Ballast Water Management Convention (International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments) 1023
Ballast water management in US 1001–1002, 1022–1029
- background 74, 997
- Commercial Vessel Incidental Discharge Act (VIDA) 1026
- Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention and Control Act (NANPCA) 1023
- National Invasive Species Act 1023
- Vessel General Permit 1025
Baltic and International Maritime Council (BIMCO) 9, 82, 296, 348, 439, 709–712, 717, 806, 862, 1038, 1147–1149, 1193, 1220, 1225, 1262, 1324
Bareboat charterers
- Civil Liability Conventions 102
- clean-up costs 670–671
- damages 670–671
- Fund Conventions 39, 102, 711, 1131
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 371
- indemnities 688–689
- instructions 141, 689
- insurance 711–712, 713
- joint and several liability 263, 341–342, 670–671, 712
- lender liability 775
- liability 670–671
- negligence 676
- Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 230–232, 670, 777
- P&I Clubs 713
- recourse liability 688–689
- responsible party 230–232, 670–671, 777
- standard forms 671, 688–689, 711
- strict liability 670
Barges 107–108, 1104
Basel BAN Amendment. see Basel Convention on Transboundary Movements of Waste
Basel Convention on Transboundary Movements of Waste 1178–1184. see also Shipment of waste
- Basel BAN Amendment 1181–1182
- civil liability and compensation 1184
- control of movements between contracting states 1154–1159
- criminal liability and public law obligations 1184
- OECD Decision 1181–1182
- recycling of ships 1196–1208
- movements permissible subject to controls 1180–1181
- non-compliance with 1184
- prohibition of movements 1179–1180
- plastic waste 1183–1184
- scope 1178–1179
- “wastes”, meaning 1179, 1182
- wastes from ship operations 1190–1192
Page 1331

Bilge water
- MARPOL 115, 951, 1192, 1255–1257, 1269, 1319–1322
BIMCO (Baltic and International Maritime Council) 9, 82, 296, 348, 439, 709–712, 717, 806, 862, 1038, 1147–1149, 1193, 1220, 1225, 1262, 1324
Birds
- clean-up 311–312
- criminal offences 1310
- Migratory Bird Treaty Act (United States) 1301–1302
Blue cards 73, 161, 181–182, 301–302, 828, 839–841. see also P&I Clubs
Bridge-to-Bridge Radio Telephone Act 1971 (United States) 1016
Brussels Collision Convention. see Colliding ships
Brussels Conference 1969 28–29
Brussels Conference 1971 30–31
Bulk carriers 81, 108–109, 337, 952–956
Bunker emission clauses 709–711
Bunker pollution 4, 72–73, 337–356. see also Bunkers Convention
- double bottoms 865, 873–874, 879, 882
- bulk carriers 81, 337, 952
- bunkering operations 355–356
- claims manual 447
- certification 301–302, 350–352, 825–827
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 97–170, 344, 652–653, 716–718
- clean-up 4, 337–338, 346–347, 350, 355, 670, 703, 897, 912–916, 922
- clean-up costs 868–870
- financial security 301–302, 350–352, 711, 737–738, 825–843
- container ships 337
- costs 864–874
- dry cargo ships 337
- environmental damage 439–440, 557, 559–562, 568
- fishing vessels 355
- Fund Convention 1992 109, 1327
- general average 864
  - hull cover, costs of repairs 881
  - hull insurance. see insurance
  - compulsory liability cover, absence of 350, 650, 1142
- IOPC Funds, unidentified ship 179–180
- limitation of liability 31, 72, 93, 339, 344–345, 348–350, 356, 670, 835, 900, 912, 916–917, 922, 1327
  - 1976 Convention 31, 72, 339, 345, 348, 670, 835, 917, 922, 1327
  - clean-up expenses 912, 916
  - environmental damage 439–440, 557, 559–562, 568
  - owner’s expenses 917
  - preventive measures 344
- national laws 350, 915, 917, 922
- negligence 732, 753
- Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 670
- pollution damage 341
- prevention
  - protection of fuel tanks 63, 298, 366, 753, 964, 1125
- preventive measures 434–435, 440–441, 872–873
  - removal of fuel oil after accidents 4
- property damage 486
- public authorities 449–452
- salvage
  - special compensation 619–631
- “ship” 340
- spills during bunkering operations 338, 356, 679, 1260, 1263
- strict liability 340, 393–396, 570
- tankers 353–355
  - implications 354–355
  - laden 59, 107, 110, 119, 128, 321, 337, 353, 365, 566, 612–614, 731, 831, 882
  - unladen 41, 93, 102–104, 108–113, 116, 119, 123, 296, 339, 344, 353, 356, 459
- technical issues 56, 437, 522, 556
- threat removal 399–402, 408–409, 416–422
- unidentified ship, IOPC Funds 179–180
  - limitation of liability 356
  - United States, position in 356
Bunkers Convention 2001 72–73, 298, 339–356, 447–448, 653, 718–719, 825–827
- Admissibility of claims 344, 447
- background 72–73
- “bunker oil” 340–341
- certification 301–302, 350–352, 826–827
- channelling provisions, absence of 343, 653
- charterers 670, 685
- Civil Liability Convention 1992, relationship with 338, 344
- Diplomatic Conference, 2001 339, 343, 349
- financial security 301–302, 350–352, 825–843
- geographical scope 339–340
- “incident” 341
- insurer 338, 343–345, 350, 825–843, 896
- judgments, recognition and enforcement 352
- jurisdiction of courts 352
- liability
  - exonerations from 341
  - incurred independently of Convention
    - by shipowner 342
    - other parties 343
  - parties liable 341
  - scope of 340
- insurer 344–345
  - direct liability 825–843
  - limitation of liability 834, 1
- Page 1332
  
  limitation of liability 343–350
  - 1976 Limitation Convention (LLMC) and 1996 LLMC Protocol 343–350, 685, 895–938
    - claims subject to limitation 836, 898–919
    - linkage to 339, 345
  - ineffective due to political pressure 339, 347–348
- offshore operations and craft, applicability to 298
- parties liable 341
- “pollution damage” 341
- responder immunity, absence of 343, 662–663
- salvors 343, 653
- scope of liability” 340
- “ship” 340
- travaux préparatoires 349–350
- time limit for claims 352

Camp sites 535, 1175, 1209, 1247
Canada
- Fund Convention 1971 30–31
- navigational aids 134–136, 763–764
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
- response measures in the United States 706, 767–768, 1274–1275
Carbon dioxide emissions 60
Carbon monoxide 1020
Cargo. see also Cargo interests
- bunker spills 4, 92, 102, 119, 123, 337–339, 371
- collision 751–752, 885
- contamination 887
- destruction 521–523
- general average 861–874, 876–879
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 369–370, 387–389
- insurance 876–879, 884
- lightering 1014–1016
- special compensation 619–620
- total loss 879–881
Cargo interests
- clean-up costs 868–870
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 97–170, 344, 716–718
- contracts 323–324
- costs 864–874
- CRISTAL 29–30
- Fund Convention 1971 30–31
- IOPC Funds 30, 38–40, 53–57, 171–172, 175–177, 683–684, 701–705
- liability 668–699
- limitation of liability 699–701
- negligence 249–251, 392–396, 570
- Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 51–52, 673,
- ownership 674–675
- potential liability 673–683
- recourse liability 685–699
- response costs 701–706
- sale contract terms 674
- salvage
  - enhanced awards 618
  - insurance 860
- title 274, 388, 674
Carriage by sea
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 371–372
Catastrophe losses, effect on reinsurance of P&I risks 796
Causation. see also Proximate cause
- charterers 675, 678, 698
- claims 126–127, 512–520, 535–540
- clean-up 406–407
- economic loss 512–520
- natural resources 568–571
- negligence 249–251, 333–334, 392–396, 570, 1223–1224
- tourism 513–515, 535–540
Cedre 361, 365, 381, 437
CERCLA (United States)
- act of God 404
- act of war 404–405
- acts or omissions of third parties 405–406
- administrative orders 415–420
- administrative record 422
- alter egos 720–727
- ambient defence 406
- “arbitrary and capricious” standard 423–425
- Certificates of Financial Responsibility 52
- claim provisions 426
- consumer products 412
- contribution 410–411
- criminal offences 1306–1307
- de minimis defence 410
- economic loss 503
- facilities 403, 412–413, 417–419
- financial responsibility 425–426
- guarantors 262–263
- Intervention on the High Seas Act (United States) 421–422
- joint and several liability 403, 410, 413
- judicial review 422–425
- legislative history 398–399
- lender liability 776–787
- limitation of liability 413
- mini-Superfund 425
- National Contingency Plan 1071
- National Priorities List 399, 401, 1074
- natural resource damage 411
- operators 412–413, 719, 776
- penalties, under. see Fines
- petroleum exclusion 400
- record of decision 401
- recovery actions 409–410
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  relationship to other laws 425
- “release” 400
- remedial actions 408–409
- removal action 400, 402, 409, 419–420
- reopener provisions 408
- response actions 399–401
- risk assessment 401–402
- Santa Clara 395, 404, 414, 417–419, 423
- section 106 orders 415–420
- ship managers 719
- shipowners 412–413
- state law 425
- statute of limitations 426–427
- strict liability 393–396
- “sufficient cause” 419–420
- Superfund 398–399
- Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) 399, 408–409, 416, 419, 427
- third parties 396–397
Certificates of Financial Responsibility
- CERCLA (United States) 261
- insurance 52, 382, 825, 840, 842
- lightering 1014–1016
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
- P&I Clubs 52, 839, 843–844
Certification. see also Certificates of Financial Responsibility, Financial security
- bunker spills 102
- double hulls, alternatives to 966, 1193
- insurance 350–352
- International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate 263, 963, 1010, 1094, 1104, 1266
- manning 1005, 1009, 1228
- MARPOL 962–963, 972, 978, 985, 995, 999, 1002
- Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 51–52, 229–254, 670–673, 1011–1018, 1302–1306
- standards 1228
- vessel response plans 1034–1038, 1092–1112
Charterers 667–714. see also Bareboat charters
- acts or omissions 675–683
- Aegean Sea 700–701, 901–904
- Athos I, 260–261, 692–694
- assignment 704–705
- bunker spills 679, 685, 686
- Bunkers Convention 2001 343, 685, 686, 718
- causation 698
- CERCLA (United States) 671–672, 688
- channelling provisions 138–139, 669–670, 681, 684–687, 702
- charterparty clauses 706–713
- Civil Liability Convention 140–142, 145, 669, 686–687, 703–704, 705, 920–921
- clauses 706–713
- common law 6
- compensation 686–687, 694–697
- contracts 674, 687–688, 704–705
- contributions 686–688, 701–703
- controls on ship safety standards 1247–1248
- costs 703–706
- damages 686, 704–705
- dangerous goods 679–680, 694–698
- defences 686
- delay 544–546
- delegation 671
- due diligence 676–678, 682, 692–693, 695–696, 707–710
- employment clause 698–699
- environmental damage 668, 694, 698, 702–703
- expenses 703–705
- financial responsibility 671, 677, 712
- Fund Conventions 669, 687, 703–705, 711, 716
- hazardous and noxious substances 669, 671–672, 679–680, 694–690
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 669, 704–705
- HNS Fund 669, 687, 704–705
- inadequate stowage 679–680
- indemnities 669, 686–689, 698–699. 694–696, 700, 710–711
- inspection 675–676, 680–683, 707–708, 1247–1248
- insurance 713–714
  - cost of additional 711–712
- IOPC Funds 701–705
- joint and several liability 670–671, 681
- law of individual states 673–675
- liability 668–698
- liability for waste disposal 668, 683–685, 711
  - European legislation 683–685
  - United States 671–673
- limitation of liability 699–701, 892, 901, 919–921
- negligence 675–683
- negligent choice of carrier 680–683
- OCIMF 682, 708–709, 1247–1248. see also OCIMF
- Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 281, 670–673, 679, 687–688, 697, 711
- oil transfer operations 679
- “operators” 670–673
- orders 689, 698–699
- P&I Clubs 705, 706, 707, 711–712, 713–714, 795, 814
- personal injuries 676
- potential liability 673–675
- potentially responsible parties 688
- pre-emption provisions 36, 51, 1021
- prevention 19, 61, 263, 673, 682, 709, 712, 1008, 1033, 1190, 1247–1248, 1255
- property damage 701, 919
- reasonableness 683
- Page 1334
  
  recourse liability 669, 685–699
- recovery 701–706
- reimbursement 704, 706–707
- remedies 698
- response 701, 703–704
- response measures 687, 705–706, responsible parties 670–671, 673, 687–688, 712
- safe berths 689–699
- safe ports 689–699
- shipowners 686, 703–705
- stowage 679–680
- strict liability 608–673
- subrogation 686–688, 704–705
- substandard vessels 680–683, 703
- terminal operator, liability as 677–679
- third parties 677, 687, 704
- time charterparties 671–673, 673–674, 689–698
  - employment clause in 698–699
- US State law 673–674
- unsafe berths 689–693
- unsafe ports 689–693
- vetting programmes 12, 680, 683, 685, 703, 707–709, 1247–1248
- vicarious liability 676
- voyage charterparties 671–673, 679–683, 688–698
- warranties 689–694, 810–811, 824
- wreck removal 667, 670, 686, 690
Charterparty clauses 706–713
- bunker emission clauses 709–711
- cost of additional insurance 711–712
- financial security clauses 711
- fines and penalties 712
- oil major approval clauses 680, 706–709
- response measures 706–707
  - oil company clauses 706–707
  - TOVALO|P Charterparty Clause 706–707
- vetting clauses 680, 707–709
Charts 764
Chemicals
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 359–360, 361, 365–366, 370, 393
- National Contingency Plan 1071
Civil Liability Conventions 1969 and 1992 (CLC) 97–170
- CLC 69
  - background 28–29
  - Brussels Conference 1969 28–29
  - CMI, preparatory work 10, 29, 59
  - contracting states 97
  - entry into force 29
  - environmental damage, claims under 559–562
  - limitation barred by actual fault or privity 38–40
- CLC 92
  - act of God. see natural phenomenon
  - acts or omissions of claimants 136–137
  - admissibility of claims. see claims
  - agents of shipowner, liability excluded by 141–143
    - arrest 167–168
    - background 29, 39–41, 53–54, 57–58, 97–98
    - bareboat charters 775
    - builder, liability not excluded by 38, 141, 143
    - bunker spills 97, 102, 109–119, 353–356
    - cases not covered by Conventions 93
    - causation 126–127
    - certification 161, 826–827
    - channelling provisions. see exclusion of other remedies
    - charterers
      - claims by 710–705
      - exclusion of liability 140–143, 669
      - recourse action against by shipowner 686
    - charts, as navigational aids 136
    - claims
      - admissibility and assessment 137–138
        
        clean-up operations and preventive measures 449–480
        
        criteria. see Criteria for admissibility of claims (IOPC Funds)
        
        economic loss 444–446, 511–553
        
        general principles 431–432
        
        marine environment, damage to 562–568
        
        property damage 482–487
      - non-CLC states 148–149, 166, 718
    - classification societies 143–144
    - clean-up operations
      - generally 186, 227, 449, 463, 469, 702, 744, 1098
      - loss or damage caused by 355, 434, 449–450, 468–469, 547, 681
      - persons taking measures 451, 909
      - reasonableness of measures 454–462, 544
      - technical problems 440–441
    - colliding ship, owner of 730–732
    - collision 751–752, 885
    - combination carriers 102–103, 109–114
    - CMI Guidelines on Oil Pollution Damage 10, 445, 1328
    - compensation
      - general framework 387–389
      - limits 379
        
        increase in 30–31, 39–40
      - supplemental, under Fund Convention 10–11, 101–102, 150–155
    - compulsory insurance. see financial security
    - conduct of owner barring limitation 145–147
      - guarantor’s liability, no effect on 263, 266
      - wilful misconduct
        
        guarantor’s liability, effect on 332, 812, 827–828, 845
    - consistent application, importance of 17, 80, 284, 349, 443, 490
    - contamination. see also Environmental damage
    - Page 1335
      
      clean-up operations 355–356
      - damage not caused by 486–487
      - escape or discharge oil 487
        
        contamination resulting from 355, 547, 905
        
        contamination not resulting from 355
      - equipment 467–468
      - fisheries. see also Fishing industry and related industries
      - fish farms 482, 520–521, 530
      - loss or damage, cause of 468–469
      - property damage 486
      - sampling 1268–1270
      - technical considerations 437–442
      - water supplies 526
      - wild fish and other seafood 523–525
    - corporate veil 720, 724–725
    - costs of clean-up operations and preventive measures
      - equipment, residual value 467–468
      - fixed costs 444, 450, 463–457, 650, 1058
        
        salaries 450, 463–465
        
        plant and equipment 467–468
      - generally 449–454, 457, 464–465, 468–478
      - IOPC Funds, practice of 465–467
      - meaning of “costs” 649–650
      - persons entitled to claim 451–454
      - pre-spill costs 418, 432, 475, 593
      - reasonableness of costs 454–462, 544
      - salvage operations and related measures 473
    - criteria for admissibility of claims. see claims, Criteria for admissibility of claims (IOPC Funds)
    - default in maintenance of navigational aids. see maintenance of navigational aids
    - definitions 101–129
    - denunciation of CLC 559
    - direct action against insurer 825–854
    - economic loss. see also Economic loss
      - criteria of IOPC Funds 511–515
      - decided cases 467, 515, 777, 904, 927
      - generally 138, 149, 208, 436–437, 556, 652, 923
    - enforcement of judgments 163–168, 352–353, 390
    - entry into force 13–14, 362–363
      - in contracting states 379, 995, 1289
    - exceptions to liability 1141, 1301
      - act or omission of claimant 378
      - natural phenomenon 132–133, 187–188
      - malicious acts 133–134
      - default in maintenance of navigation aids 134–136
        
        alternative remedy, whether necessary 135
        
        “maintenance”, meaning 135–136
        
        “navigational aids”, meaning 136
      - exclusion of other remedies (channelling provisions)
        
        exclusion of claims against owner 139–140
        
        exclusion of claims against other parties 140–145
        
        introduction 138–139
        
        limits on effect of
        
        claims for loss or damage other than “pollution damage” 147–148
        
        claims in non-CLC states 148–149, 166, 718
        
        conduct barring immunity 145–147
        
        owner’s rights of recourse unaffected 145
        
        persons who perform services 143–145
        
        servants or agents 141–143
      - exclusive economic zone 100, 945–946, 949, 1040–1041, 1295–1296
      - fault 242–248, 759–760
      - financial limits
        
        amounts 112, 558, 794, 915, 934–936
        
        background 301–302
        
        insurer 28, 103, 112, 147, 301, 344
      - financial security 161–162, 181–183, 301–302, 382–383, 711, 737–738, 825–843, 1138–1140
        
        insurance and other assets insufficient 182
        
        non-compliance with requirements 182–183
      - fisheries. see contamination, Fishing and related industries
      - Fund Convention, relationship with 150–151
      - general average, relationship with 876
      - geographical scope 99–101
        
        contracting states 1154–1159
        
        exclusive economic zone 100, 945–946, 949, 1040–1041, 1295–1296
      - guarantors 206–207, 648, 825–854
      - health claims 434
      - incident
        
        definition 126–129
        
        grave and imminent threat 128–129
        
        intervening act or omission 127–128
        
        two or more ships 129, 374
      - indemnity, insurer’s right of against shipowner 669, 687, 828, 839
      - insurance
        
        certification 350–352
        
        channelling of liability, relevance 318, 686, 1189
        
        enforcement of judgments, relevance to 163–168, 352–353, 390
        
        financial security 161–162, 181–183, 301–302, 382–383, 711, 737–738, 825–843, 1138–1140
        
        P&I cover 770–771, 809–825
      - insurer, direct liability of 827–834
      - interim payments 158–160, 196–205, 932–936
      - Page 1336
        
        International Maritime Organization 7–8, 294–295, 1055–1060, 1231, 1236
      - intervention
        
        by IOPC Funds in proceedings under CLC 192–193
        
        state intervention, costs of 1038–1044
        
        IOPC Funds. see IOPC Funds
      - joint and several liability 131, 342, 670–671, 715–716
      - judgments
        
        enforcement 163–168, 352–353, 390
        
        mutual recognition and enforcement 167
        
        recognition 166–168, 352–353
        
        IOPC Funds, effect on 192–193, 201–203, 206
        
        jurisdiction 163–168, 352–353, 390
      - jurisdiction of courts
        
        competent court 163–164, 205–206
        
        incident affecting more than one state 164–166
      - lender liability 775–788
      - liability 129–137, 179–181
        
        basis for 142–143
        
        exceptions 131–137
        
        guarantors 206–207, 648, 825–854
        
        insurers 97–98
        
        limitation of. see limitation of liability
        
        pollution damage, other than for 767
      - lights 763–764
      - Limitation Convention 1976
        
        relationship with 150, 344, 381
      - limitation fund
        
        constitution of fund 153–154
        
        conversion into national currency 156–157, 188–189
        
        method of constituting fund 154–155, 931–932
        
        distribution of fund 158–161
        
        payments made prior to distribution
        
        interim payments by the owner 158–160, 196–205, 932–936
        
        compensation paid by other parties 209
        
        owners’ expenses 160–161, 451–452
        
        reserve for outstanding claims 55, 159, 172
        
        subrogation claims against fund 158, 200, 208–209, 745, 751, 935
        
        interest on 157–158
        
        jurisdiction 154
      - limitation of actions 163
      - limitation of liability
        
        amount 151
        
        minimum limit 151
        
        background 149–150
        
        conditions of limitation under national law 155–156
        
        conduct barring 145–147
        
        constitution of fund 153–154
        
        insurer 160
        
        limitation tonnage 151–152
      - loss of profit. see also Economic loss
        
        in revised definition of “pollution damage” 112–113
      - maintenance of navigational aids, default in. see exceptions to liability
      - malicious acts. see exceptions to liability
      - marine environment, claim for damage to, admissibility 564–565
        
        assessment of damage 556–557
        
        funding of studies 568
        
        generally 564–565
        
        liability other than for “pollution damage” 147–148
        
        policy considerations 443–444, 556–558
        
        reinstatement 565–565
        
        restoration 556
        
        studies, funding 568
        
        technical considerations 437–442
        
        valuation of damage 557
      - mobile offshore units 283, 299, 371–372
      - natural phenomenon. see exceptions to liability
      - natural resources. see marine environment
      - navigational aids, default in maintenance of. see exceptions to liability
      - negligence 249–251, 333–334, 392–396, 570, 1223–1224
        
        contributory 136–137, 378, 469, 514, 731, 753, 760, 763, 821
      - occurrence
        
        incident, meaning 237
        
        time limit for claims 352, 389–390
      - oil
        
        definition 123–126
        
        oil not carried on board as cargo or bunkers 124–126
        
        persistent 123–124
      - oil barges 107–108
      - owner, definition 101–102
      - P&I Clubs 140, 147, 154–155
      - parties liable under 341–342
      - persistent oil, definition 123–124
      - personal injury 469–470, 487–488, 676–677, 733–734
      - piercing the corporate veil 720, 724–725
      - pilots 760–761
      - pollution damage
        
        definition 126, 341
        
        liability for damage other than 147–148
      - port state control 958–959, 979, 985–986
      - preventive measures 100–101, 178–179, 207–208, 343–344
      - property damage 486
      - Protocol 1976 936–937
      - Protocol 1984 40–41
        
        United States, decision not to ratify 14, 35
      - Page 1337
        
        Protocol 1992 54
      - proximate cause
        
        war risks exclusion 132, 821–822
      - proximity
        
        between contamination and economic loss criteria for admissibility of claims 56, 512–513, 534
        
        decided cases 467, 515, 777, 904, 927
      - public authorities. see also clean-up operations, Clean-up, Clean-up costs
        
        act or omission of 127–128, 136–137, 185, 328–329, 378, 675–683, 756–759, 924–925
        
        default in maintenance of navigational aids 134–136
      - pure economic loss. see Economic loss
      - “pure threat” situation. see incident, pre-spill costs
      - ratification, 1992 Protocol 54
      - recognition of judgments 166–168, 352–353
      - recourse, owner’s rights of 145
      - registered owner 720–729, 1131
      - relationship between conventions
        
        CLC 69 and CLC 15
        
        CLC and Fund Conventions 150–151
      - remedies
        
        alternative 103, 135, 138, 355, 367, 378, 401
        
        exclusion of other 138–149, 378–379
        
        government authority against 135
      - residues, meaning of 114–117
      - revision
        
        1984 Protocol 40–41
        
        decision against, 2005 194, 213
      - sale and leaseback, liability of owner 102, 688
      - salvage. see salvors, Salvage
      - salvors
        
        claims by 652–653
        
        liability for pollution, exclusion of 801–802
        
        payments to, claims for 863–864
      - scope of 99–129
      - ship
        
        background 41, 102–123
        
        combination carriers (OBOs) 108–109
        
        consideration by IOPC Funds 104–105
        
        definition 102–123
        
        incident involving two or more 129, 374
        
        oil barges 107–108
        
        preparatory works 105–106
        
        residues, meaning of 114–117
        
        seagoing vessel and seaborne craft, meaning of 106–107, 296–298
        
        small 151
        
        state-owned ships 123, 184
        
        tanker in ballast 180, 831
        
        unladen vessels 109–118
        
        vessels adapted for carriage of oil 108, 353
        
        vessels carrying cargo other than persistent oil 123–124
        
        vessels used for storage 120–122
        
        vessels used for storage and carriage 122–123
        
        warships 123
      - ship builders 143
      - ship financiers 776
      - ship managers 716–718
      - shipowners
        
        alter egos 720–727
        
        definition 101–102
        
        exceptions to liability of 1141, 1301
        
        servants or agents, liability of 141–143
        
        strict liability of 393–396, 570
      - small tankers 72, 122, 151, 1015
      - state immunity 137, 853–854
      - state-owned ships 123, 184
      - status in contracting states 1154–1159
      - strict liability 393–396, 570
        
        exceptions to shipowner’s 131–137
      - sunken wrecks
        
        contact with 458, 469
        
        time limit for claims 352, 389–390
        
        tankers 458, 460, 469, 702, 1150
        
        bunker spills 461, 469, 1124
        
        in ballast 1150
      - terminal operators 677–679
      - territorial sea 99–100, 944, 948–949, 1038–1039, 1042–1043, 1140–1142, 1240–1241, 1296–1297
      - terrorism 66–67, 133–134, 821–822, 1116
      - time limit for proceedings 162–163, 192
      - tonnage 151–152
      - transitional period 54, 93, 462, 850
      - two or more ships 129, 374
      - two-tier system 59, 359
      - unladen vessels 109–118
      - war risks 132, 184, 821–822
      - warships 123
      - wilful misconduct
        
        effect on liability of guarantor 334–335, 811–813
      - wrecks
        
        contact with 458, 469
        
        time limit for claims 352, 389–390
- Civil Liability Directive (EU) 72
- Claims. see also Damages, Legal proceedings
  - admissibility
    - criteria, IOPC Funds 54–57, 137–138, 185–186, 432, 445–447, 461–462, 466–467, 511–515, 562–568
    - general principles 431–448
    - Page 1338
      
      guidelines, CMI 56, 445, 864
    - national courts, role of 443
    - policy considerations 443–444, 556–558
    - uniform system, reasons for 442–443
  - domestic laws 19–20, 435–437, 735–737, 747–749, 907, 911–913, 1289–1290
  - Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention
    - HNS damage 364, 365, 368–369, 374–375
  - Oil Pollution Act of 1990, see United States
  - manual. see Claims Manual (IOPC Funds)
  - pollution compensation regimes
    - admissibility 432–435
    - Bunkers Convention 344
    - Civil Liability Convention 1992 97–170, 344, 652–653, 716–718
    - Fund Convention 1992 432, 444, 461, 469–470
    - clean-up costs. see Clean-up costs
    - economic loss. see Economic loss
    - general principles 432–435
    - IOPC Funds’ admissibility criteria 54–57, 137–138, 185–186, 432, 445–447, 461–462, 466–467, 511–515, 562–568
    - natural resources, damage to. see Natural resources
    - property damage. see Property Damage
    - preventive measures. see Preventive measures, Clean-up costs
    - settlement procedures 194–206
  - pollution damage. see pollution compensation regimes
  - removal costs. see United States
  - technical considerations 437–442
  - United States
    - CERCLA 415–420
    - Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 51–52, 229–254, 670–673, 1011–1018, 1302–1306
      - Damages 238–240
      - Damage to natural resources 555–605
      - Economic loss 511–513
      - Removal costs 435–436
      - Restoration 568–605
  - wreck removal 1127, 1135, 1136–1138, 1140–1141
- Claims Manual (IOPC Funds) 178, 446–447
- Class actions
  - Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
- Classification societies
  - charterers 1244–1247
  - controls on ship safety standards 72, 91, 141–146, 308, 703, 824, 972, 1060, 1244–1247
  - International Association of Classification Societies 9, 963, 1245–1246
  - liability for pollution 141–146, 703
  - Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 51–52, 229–254, 670–673, 1011–1018, 1302–1306
  - ships, vetting programmes 1246, 1248
  - standards 1244–1246
- CLC. see Civil Liability Conventions 1969 and 1992
- Clean Air Act (United States) 1020–1022, 1307
  - criminal liability for violations 959, 962, 971, 1250
  - emission standards
    - ocean-going vessels 92, 252, 1020–1021, 1194
- Clean ballast tanks (CBTs) 114, 966
- Clean-up. see also Clean-up costs, Preventive measures
  - bulk oil 456
  - contamination 434
  - dispersants 455–456
  - onshore operations 58
  - offshore operations 312
  - personal injuries, clean-up workers 396, 558
  - public authorities 449–450
  - reasonableness 454–462, 544
  - recovery of oil at sea 455
  - rehabilitation of wildlife 457
  - repairs 881
  - response measures in the United States 706, 767–768, 1274–1275
  - restoration 440–441, 605
  - salvage 868–870
  - shipowners 917
  - shoreline operations 456–457
  - technical issues 454, 556
- Clean-up costs 449–480
  - bareboat charterers 688
  - bunker spills 321
  - cargo owners 668–672, 683–684, 688, 692
  - CERCLA (United States) 406–407, 425–427, 783–785
  - charterers 668
  - claims 346–347, 425–427
  - Clean Water Act (United States) 36, 45, 66, 217, 391, 574
  - commercial tensions 1162
  - contractors 66, 78, 245, 279, 304, 321, 338, 453
  - deductions 453
  - definition 45
  - economic loss 411, 431
  - equipment 467–468
  - expenses 346, 453, 869, 873
  - fines 407
  - financial responsibility 78, 321
  - Fund Conventions 36, 55, 127, 683–684, 868–689
  - general average 868–870
  - government authorities 731
  - Hazardous and Substances Convention 365–366, 372–373
  - indemnities 325–335, 778
  - interest groups 453
  - IOPC Funds 29–30, 38–40, 53–56, 461–462, 466–467
  - lender liability 775–788
  - limitation fund 201, 346
  - limitation of actions 255–256, 268, 279, 426–427
  - limitation of liability 901–903
  - measures taken by contractors 338, 453
  - national laws 218, 683
  - Page 1339
    
    oil companies 668, 725
  - Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 51–52, 229–254, 670–673, 1011–1018, 1302–1306
  - Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund 78, 243, 260, 279, 338, 668, 693, 736
  - OPRC Convention 1990 1328
  - OPRC-HNS 2000 1030, 1063
  - overhead 238–239, 409, 464, 466
  - owners’ expenses 160–161, 451–452
  - P&I Clubs 194–195
  - persons entitled to claim 451–454
  - plant 86, 439, 463–464, 555, 572, 783
  - prevention 217
  - reasonableness 454–462, 544
  - US hazardous and noxious substances 431
  - VAT 468
  - volunteers 453
- Clean Water Act (United States) 45, 224–229, 397–398, 420–421, 568–572, 575–577, 1302–1306
  - administrative penalties 227, 1324
  - aquatic invasive species 1022–1029
  - ballast water management 74–75, 1001–1002, 1022–1029
  - causation 568
  - causes of discharge 278, 754, 1143
    - action, of 278
  - CERCLA 415–420
  - clean-up costs 868–870
  - criminal offences 398–399, 405–407, 1306–1307
  - damages 238–240
  - defences 334, 779
  - enforcement 228–229
  - Environmental Protection Agency 47, 226–227, 235, 311, 391, 1020, 1023–1025, 1073, 1151, 1209, 1328
  - exclusive economic zone 100, 945–946, 949, 1040–1041, 1295–1296
  - financial responsibility 261–267
  - fines 1298, 1312
  - hazardous substances 45, 224, 391, 397, 403, 420, 574, 580, 671, 779, 1071, 1098, 1143, 1298, 1302
  - immunity 754, 1098
  - knowledge 403, 754, 779, 1172, 1312
  - liability 36, 45, 66, 217, 224
    - third parties 391, 397, 754
  - limitation of actions 255–256, 268, 279, 426–427
  - limitation of liability 334, 779, 1298
  - masters 49
  - mobile offshore units 283, 299, 371–372
  - National Contingency Plan 1071
  - natural resources 568–574, 572–574
  - negligence 249–251, 333–334, 392–396, 570, 1223–1224
  - notice 420, 1143
  - “oil” 123–124
  - Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 51–52, 229–254, 670–673, 1011–1018, 1302–1306
  - P&I Clubs 334, 754, 1098
  - penalties 227–228
  - pre-emption provisions 36, 51, 1021
  - pre-spill costs 418, 432, 475, 593
  - prohibited discharges 224–225
  - property damage 486
  - reporting 225–227
  - response 399–401, 408–409, 416–417
  - “significant harm to the environment” 226, 1314
  - state law 36, 66, 217, 239–240
  - strict liability 393–396, 570
  - third parties 232–233
  - threats of discharge 1023, 1170
  - US Coast Guard 219, 391, 1023, 1025
  - US hazardous and noxious substances 1009
  - “vessels” 574
  - wilful misconduct 334–335, 811–813
- Climate change. see Greenhouse gas emissions
- Clingage 22, 114
- CMI. see Comité Maritime International
- Coal 370, 376, 699, 1169
- Coastal state control 1240–1244
  - detection of violations 1218
  - enforcement at sea 1240
    - in the EEZ 1241
    - in the territorial sea 1240–1241
    - maritime casualties 1241–1243
  - jurisdiction 1240–1243
  - practice 1243–1244
  - safeguards 1243
- Coastal states
  - intervention 754, 1038–1040, 1044
  - ports 1044–1047, 1238–1242
  - reporting 1030–1032
  - response measures 1065–1067
  - salvage 629, 1040, 1043–1046, 1046–1052, 1054–1056, 1059–1060
  - standards 947–949
  - state law 63, 270
  - United States 1059, 1071
  - wreck removal 1123–1124
- COFR. see Certificates of financial responsibility
- Colliding ships 729–752. see also Collision Convention
  - admissibility of pollution claims
    - by parties suffering pollution damage 730–740
    - by the owners of the other ship 886–887
  - apportionment of blame 732–737
    - Collision Convention 733–735, 742–747
    - domestic laws
      - China 734–735
      - United Kingdom 735–736
      - United States 736–737
  - Collision Convention. see Collision Convention
  - contribution, liability to pay 742
  - Page 1340
    
    domestic laws 735–737
    - United Kingdom 735–736
    - United States 736–737
  - financial security 161–162, 181–183, 301–302, 382–383, 711, 737–738, 825–843, 1138–1140
    - direct rights against insurers 737–738
  - innocent cargo rule 734, 736
  - insurance of liabilities 751
  - IOPC Funds, subrogation rights arising from 208–209, 750–751
  - liability for claims
    - by parties suffering pollution damage
      - apportionment of blame 732–737
      - Collision Convention 733–735, 742–747
      - domestic laws
        
        China 734–735
        
        United States 735–736
        
        United Kingdom 736–737
      - limitation of liability 738–740
      - time limit 737
    - by owners of colliding ship
      - contribution claims 749–750
        
        admissibility of claims 743–744
        
        Brussels Collision Convention 733–735, 742–747
        
        liability to pay contribution 742
        
        limitation of liability 738–740
        
        restrictions on claim for contribution 744–745
        
        domestic laws
        
        United Kingdom 747–748
        
        United States 748–749
        
        time limit 749
  - limitation of liability
    - to parties suffering pollution damage 730–740
    - to owners of colliding ship (contribution claim) 749–750
    - to compensation bodies bringing recourse claims 750–751
  - Maritime Conventions Act 1911 (UK) 734, 742, 745
  - non-contracting states, application in 1179–1180
  - parties suffering pollution damage 730–740
    - limitation of liability to 738–740
  - pollution caused by both ships 740
  - recourse claims by compensation bodies 750–751
  - Running Down Clause (RDC) 751, 885
  - spilling and non-spilling ships 730
  - time limits
    - claims by parties suffering pollution damage 730–740
    - claims by owners of colliding ship (contribution claims) 749–750
  - traffic separation schemes (TSS) 33, 948
- Collision Convention
  - apportionment of blame 130–131, 732–737, 742–747
  - background to 735
  - time limits
    - claims by owners of colliding ship (contribution claims) 749–750
    - claims by parties suffering pollution damage 730–740
- Collision insurance 751
  - cargo 884
  - contamination of other ship 887
  - costs of pollution preventive measures 100–101, 178–179, 207–208, 343–344
- expenses 886–887
  - general average 876–877
  - hull insurance 647, 815–816
  - liability 886–887
  - liability to owners of other ship 886–887
    - for contamination of the other ship or her cargo 886
      - for expenses relating to pollution 886–887
      - for liabilities incurred in respect of pollution 886
- liability to third parties 838–839
  - preventive measures (pollution) 100–101, 178–179, 207–208, 343–344
  - remedies 138–161, 378–379, 491
  - Running Down Clause 751, 885
  - shipowners 839
  - special compensation 619–631
  - strict liability for pollution 393–396, 570
  - third parties 838–389
- COLREGs (International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea) 32–33
- Combination carriers 108–109
- Comité Maritime International (CMI)
  - Bunkers Convention 350
  - Civil Liability Convention 1969 10, 28–29
  - Colloquium, Genoa (1992) 56
  - comparative law study 56, 443–444, 502, 558
  - Conferences
    - (1969), Tokyo
      - Draft Civil Liability Convention 27
    - (1981), Montreal
      - Draft HNS Convention 59, 361
      - Draft Salvage Convention 43, 613, 656
    - (1990), Paris
      - amendment of York-Antwerp Rules 1974 862
    - (1994), Sydney
      - CMI Guidelines on Oil Pollution Damage 10, 445, 1328
      - York-Antwerp Rules 1994 862, 867, 875, 878
    - (2016), New York
      - York-Antwerp Rules 2016 862–863
      - CMI Guidelines relating to General Average 863
  - details of 9–10
  - Guidelines on Oil Pollution Damage 10, 445, 1328
  - Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 59, 361
  - IMO Guidelines on Fair Treatment of Seafarers 1280
  - Limitation of Liability Convention 1976 (LLMC) 910, 920, 934
  - Page 1341
    
    Salvage Convention 1989 43, 613, 625, 656
    - Report of Mr. Bent Nielsen 43, 625
  - York-Antwerp Rules. see General average, York-Antwerp Rules
- Communications equipment 1016
- Companies
  - alter egos 720–727
  - Civil Liability Conventions
    - channelling provisions 138, 652–653
    - owner, definition 101–102, 371
  - criminal offences 398–399, 405–407, 1306–1307
  - directors, criminal liability 1310
  - dissolved 727
  - lender liability 775–788
  - piercing the corporate veil 720, 724–725
  - successors 726–727
- Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act 1980 (United States). see CERCLA
- Compromise. see Settlements
- Compulsory insurance. see financial security
- Conciliation 1042, 1142
- Conflict of laws 16
- Consequential loss
  - economic loss 545–547, 900–906
  - property damage 486
- Constructive total loss 804, 812, 815, 880, 882, 1119
- Containers
  - hazardous and noxious substances 59, 360–361, 366–367, 679, 694–697
  - Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 373, 376, 378, 384
  - labelling 393–396, 695, 953
  - lost overboard 92, 376, 1054, 1122–1125, 1160, 1167, 1122–1125
- Contaminated sites 408–412, 427, 823
- Contiguous zones
  - criminal offences 398–399, 405–407, 1306–1307
  - definition 944
  - United States 224–225, 1302–1313
- Continental Shelf
  - Offshore operations 285–289, 317, 303–304, 308–309, 317
  - Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act Amendments (United States) 45–46
- Contingency plans. see also National Contingency Plan
  - clean-up costs 477, 868–870
  - equipment 464
  - EU 69, 1060–1062
  - OPRC 1990 12, 52–53, 82, 295, 466, 1030, 1062–1063, 1064–1069
  - OPRC-HNS 2000 1030, 1063
  - public authorities 942, 1030, 1043, 1048, 1056–1058, 1066
  - response measures in the United States 706, 767–768, 1274–1275
  - sheltered waters 69, 1047–1052, 1058
  - shipboard oil pollution emergency plans 1064, 1111–1112
  - United States 1071–1092
- Contract Regarding an Interim Supplement to Tanker Liability. see CRISTAL
- Contractors
  - claims for costs of clean-up and preventive measures taken by 100–101, 178–179, 207–208, 343–344
- Contracts. see also Contractors, Privity of contract
  - carriage
    - cargo owners 704–705
    - charterers 674–675, 686–687
    - Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 371–372
  - economic loss 491–496
  - interference with 494–496
  - P&I Clubs 793
  - salvage. see Salvage
  - ship management 333, 717, 824, 953
- Contribution
  - CERCLA (United States) 410–411
  - general average 876–877
  - IOPC Funds, to. see IOPC Funds
  - Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 254–257
  - United States 410–411
- Contributory negligence
  - Civil Liability Conventions 137, 469, 514, 760, 763, 821
  - economic loss 469, 514
  - Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 378
  - navigational aids 134–136, 763–764
- Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships 994–997
- Convention. see Treaties and conventions
- Coral reef damage 433, 615, 806–807
- Covid-19 pandemic
  - commitment of seafarers 93
  - effect on shipping and incident response 90–91
  - reinsurance 796
- Crew. see Manning
- Criminal liability 1249–1324
  - air pollution 1264–1265
  - bail
    - to release individuals
      - Hebei Spirit 1250, 1288
      - Prestige 1243, 1250, 1258, 1283–1285
      - Tasman Spirit 1250, 1284
    - to release ships 168, 1059, 1284
  - custodial penalties, restrictions on 1273
  - defendants 1262, 1271, 1279
  - detention of seafarers
    - Amorgos 1250, 1280, 1282, 1285
    - Erika 1243, 1258, 1282, 1285
    - Hebei Spirit 1250, 1273
    - Page 1342
      
      Nissos Amorgos 1250, 1280, 1285
    - Prestige 18, 1243, 1250, 1258, 1273, 1282–1285
    - Tasman Spirit 646, 1250, 1284
  - discharge of garbage 980, 1173
  - discharge of harmful substances in packaged form 1031
  - discharge of noxious liquid substances 1258
  - discharge of oil 233–234, 487
  - discharge of sewage 576, 978, 1264
  - domestic laws 19–20, 435–437, 735–737, 747–749, 907, 911–913, 1289–1290
    - relationship with international law 1289–1290
    - EU Directive on Criminal Sanctions for Ship- source Pollution 1292–1297
    - exclusive economic zone 100, 945–946, 949, 1040–1041, 1295–1296
    - French legislation 1290–1292
    - MARPOL 1973 Conference records 292, 1296
    - territorial sea 99–100, 944, 948–949, 1038–1039, 1042–1043, 1140–1142, 1240–1241, 1296–1297
    - UNCLOS 6, 99, 943, 949, 1233, 1272, 1292, 1295–1297, 1327
  - dumping of waste 1153–1154
  - EU Directive on Criminal Sanctions for Ship-source Pollution 1292–1297
  - evidence 1265–1271
    - aerial observations 1266–1268
    - photographs 1266–1268
    - sampling and analysis 1268–1270
    - statements 1271
  - fair treatment of defendants 1279
    - IMO guidelines 1055–1060, 1236
  - French legislation 1290–1292
  - imprisonment, restrictions on 1272–1273
  - London Dumping Convention 1972, under 1151, 1158–1159, 1172
  - MARPOL and domestic laws 1289–1290
  - MARPOL Annexes I and II, under 1252–1263
    - accidental discharges 802–803, 1260–1263
      - resulting from damage to ship or equipment 1260–1262
        
        defendants 1262, 1271, 1279
        
        exemptions 962
        
        liability standard 1262
        
        meaning of “damage” 372–373
      - other accidental pollution 1262–1263
    - operational discharges 22–23, 965, 968, 973–975, 1255–1260
      - implications of fault or privity 242–248, 759–760
      - other cases 1258–1259
      - prosecutions in France 1257–1258
      - prosecutions in United States 1256–1257
    - owners and master 1252–1253
    - parties liable to prosecution 1252–1253
      - class of parties liable 1252
  - MARPOL Annexes III–VI, under 1263–1265
  - national laws. see domestic laws
  - penalties 1310–1313
    - aggravating and mitigating factors 1263, 1275, 1309
      - ability to pay fine 1278
      - action to prevent recurrence 1276
      - amount spilt 1276–1277
      - cause of violation 1276
      - clean-up 1309
      - co-operation with authorities 1277–1278
      - extent of damage 1276–1277
      - guilty plea 1277–1278
      - intent 1275–1276
      - motive 1276
      - onus of proof 927
      - previous convictions 1278–1279
      - regret expressed 1278
      - response measures 706, 767–768, 1274–1275
    - custodial penalties, restrictions on 1273
    - false statements 1274
    - imprisonment, restrictions on 1272–1273
    - internal waters, offences in 1273
    - level 1275–1279
    - mitigating factors 228, 1275, 1278. see also aggravating and mitigating factors
    - maritime safety issues 1293
    - obstruction of justice 1274
    - types 1272–1275
    - violation of laws other than for prevention of pollution 1240–1241
  - regional laws. see domestic laws
  - SOLAS, under 1229, 1236
  - United States 1298–1299. see also Criminal liability (United States)
- Criminal liability (United States)
  - alcohol testing 1316–1317
  - Assimilated Crimes Act 1299
  - birds 1301
  - casualty investigation 955, 1061, 1162, 1229
    - formal 1061
  - CERCLA (United States) 1310
  - civil liability and 1184
  - Clean Water Act (United States) 1301–1302
  - Coast Guard role in investigations 1313–1319 “
  - “contiguous zones” 944
  - corporate officers and directors 1310
  - corporations 1310–1311
  - criminal fines 1308–1310
  - defences 1281
  - directors 1310
  - “discharge of pollutant” 879, 1302
  - drugs 1012, 1274, 1312
  - enforcement 1232, 1240
  - evidence 1265–1271
  - Exxon Valdez 48–51
  - false information 1197, 1305–1307
  - Page 1343
    
    Federal Sentencing Guidelines 1309–1310
  - federal statutes 1300–1308
  - fines 1308–1310
  - Fifth Amendment 1317–1318
  - formal marine casualty investigations 955, 1061, 1162, 1229
  - general criminal statutes 1308
  - hazardous waste 1200–1208
  - immunity 1318
  - inspections 1270–1271
  - ISM Code 252, 1303, 1311, 1313
  - knowing endangerment 1304
  - knowledge 77, 1289
  - Law of the Sea Convention 1040, 1272, 1306
  - legal representation 1318
  - loss doubling provision 1309
  - manning 1011–1012
  - Marine Board of Investigation 1316
  - “marine casualty” 1313–1317
  - marine casualty investigations 955, 1061, 1162, 1229
  - MARPOL 1252–1265, 1289–1290
  - Migratory Bird Treaty Act (United States) 1301–1302
  - National Pollution Discharge Elimination System 1302
  - natural resources 19, 1274, 1298, 1302, 1308, 1324
  - “navigable waters” 219–220, 234–236
  - negligence 249–251, 333–334, 392–396, 570, 1223–1224
  - notice 1314
  - “ocean” 1303
  - Oil Record Book 965–966, 969
  - oily water separators 67, 1319
  - P&I Club 1284
  - penalties 1271–1279
  - “person” 1303
  - “point source” 1023, 1149, 1302
  - “pollutant” 1252, 1268, 1302–1303, 1306
  - Ports and Waterways Safety Act (United States) 1004–1006
  - refuse 1310
  - Refuse Act 1300–1301
  - reporting 1250, 1266–1270, 1294, 1313, 1318
  - “responsible corporate officer” 1312–1313
  - Rivers and Harbors Act 1899 (United States) 222–224, 1300–1301
  - self-incrimination 1271, 1317, 1323
  - Sentencing Reform Act 1308–1309
  - strict liability 393–396, 570
  - territorial sea 99–100, 944, 948–949, 1038–1039, 1042–1043, 1140–1142, 1240–1241, 1296–1297
  - Thompson memorandum 1311
  - United States 67, 1256–1257, 1310–1313
  - US Coast Guard 67, 1255, 1313–1318
  - wildlife 1308
- Criminalization
  - fair treatment of defendants 1279
- CRISTAL 29–30
  - background 29–30
  - cargo interests 30
  - Contract 29
  - Cristal Ltd 29–30
  - Fund Conventions
    - comparison with 29
  - introduction of 58
  - membership 30, 58
  - purpose 29–30
  - termination 58
  - threat removal measures 399–402, 408–409, 416–422
  - tonnage 151–152
  - TOVALOP 27–28
    - differences between 30
- Criteria for admissibility of claims (IOPC Funds)
  - background to and adoption of 56, 444–445
  - clean-up operations and preventive measures
    - cost of measures 462–463
    - fixed costs 463–457, 1058
    - reasonableness of measures 454–462, 544
  - damage to marine environment
    - exclusion of claims other than for costs of reasonable measures of reinstatement 148
    - funding of studies 568
    - reinstatement measures 558–559, 563–567
  - economic loss
    - decided cases 467, 515, 777, 904, 927
    - general criteria 511–513
    - measures to prevent or minimise economic loss 902, 905
  - legal status of 445–446
- Crude oil washing 968–969
- Cyber risks
  - cyber attacks 88, 92, 796
  - IMO guidelines 954
  - insurance 88, 796, 823
- “Damage” (Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010), definition 372–373, 1261–1262
- Damage to property. see Property damage
- “Damage to the environment” (Salvage Convention 1989). see also Salvage
  - definition 612–615
  - location of damage 615
  - mid-ocean casualty 625, 631
  - nature of damage 612–613
  - scale of damage 613–615
  - substantial 613–614
  - threat of damage
    - apprehension of danger 621–622
    - degree of risk 621
    - source of threat 621
- Damages
  - alter egos 720–727
  - bareboat charters 775, 782, 795
  - bunker spills 718, 732
  - Page 1344
    
    carriage of, SOLAS 953
  - CERCLA (United States) 411–412
  - charterers 704–705
  - charterer’s liability 679–680, 694–698
  - claims 435–436
  - contracts 323–324
  - dangerous goods see also Hazardous and noxious substances, Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010, IMDG Code
  - double recovery 605
  - economic loss 434–437
  - financial responsibility 261–267, 425–426
  - lender liability 775–788
  - limitation of actions 255–256, 268, 279, 426–427
  - measure of
    - natural resources, United States 571–574
    - recourse action by shipowner 917–919
  - natural resources 569–581, 590–592
  - negligence 249–251, 333–334, 392–396, 570, 1223–1224
  - nuisance 569–570
  - Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 238–240
  - P&I Clubs 800
  - punitive 331–332, 800
    - CERCLA (United States) 415–420, 422, 577–579
    - Exxon Valdez 48–51
  - recourse action by shipowner 917–919
  - Refuse Act (United States) 1300–1301
  - trespass to land 570
  - United States 331–332, 411–412, 435–436, 569, 704–705
  - US state law 498–501
- De minimis provisions 225, 234, 406, 410, 427
- Declarations 376
- Deepwater Horizon
  - blowout preventer 230, 306
  - civil litigation 270, 314–317
  - contractual allocation of risk 323, 330–332
    - indemnity, scope of 331–332
  - damage assessments 258
  - economic loss 506
  - explosion and fire 21, 276, 283, 304–310, 314–315
  - dispersants 310, 313–314, 1098
  - Gulf Coast Claims Facility (GCCF) 313
  - Gulf Coast Restoration Fund 314
  - fines and penalties 257, 331–332
  - Halliburton 306–308, 315–316, 331–332
  - incident, summary 306–308
  - investigations 308–309
    - US Coast Guard 308
  - legislative and regulatory response 313–314
  - natural resource damages 311–312, 314, 317, 591, 602–603
  - OPA-90
    - federal and state law, relationship between 275–277
    - gross negligence 251
    - jury trial 270
    - punitive damages 240
    - vessel, definition of 230
  - response to incident 309–311, 1085–1086, 1098
  - settlements 313, 317
  - spill impacts 311–313
  - Transocean Holdings LLC (Transocean) 306–309, 314–317, 329–332, 506–507
- Deepwater Port Act (United States) 46–47
  - “deepwater ports”, definition of 46
  - financial responsibility 262
  - Gateway LNG port 46, 232, 305
  - licensing 46–47
  - Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP) 46, 52, 232, 248, 305–306
  - Neptune Massachusetts 46, 232, 305
- Delay
  - charterers 704–705
  - diversion 546
  - economic loss 434–437
  - ferries 539, 989, 1025
  - loss of income 551–552
  - shipowners 544–545
- Demise charters. see Bareboat charters
- Department of Homeland Security 64, 1073, 1086
- Desalination plants 483
- Detention of ships
  - arrest. see Arrest of ships
  - coastal state control 1240–1244
  - port state control 958–959, 979, 985–986
- Director of IOPC Funds. see IOPC Funds
- Directors, criminal liability 1310
- Dismantling of vessels. see Recycling of ships
- Dispersal, natural. see Dissipation
- Dispersants, use of 310, 314, 1098
- Dissipation, natural 123, 438, 1045, 1277
- Dissolved corporations 727
- Diversion of ships 546
- Documentary sources 1325–1328
- Domestic laws. see National laws
- Double bottoms. see also Bunker spills, Double hulls
  - damaged double bottoms, cost of measures to prevent escape of bunkers
    - general average 865, 873–874, 879
    - hull insurance 647, 815–816
- Double hulls 1013
  - timetable 68, 1000, 1013
- Drills 64, 659, 1080, 1093, 1109, 1115
- Drugs 1012, 1274, 1312
- Dry cargo vessels 64–66, 78, 1111
- Due diligence
  - charterers 675–682, 695–696, 704–705, 707–710
  - negligence 249–251, 333–334, 392–396, 570, 1223–1224
  - safe ports 689–693
  - Page 1345
    
    stowage 679–680
  - United States 242
- Dumping at sea. see London Dumping Convention 1972 and 1996 London Protocol
- Ecological damage. see Environmental damage
- Economic loss 434–437
  - angling clubs 548
  - agriculture 269, 311, 407, 692, 1073
  - aquaculture 438, 451, 458, 521, 567, 572, 1079
  - bright line rule 494
  - bunker spills 718, 732
  - business interruption 544–546
  - causation 512–520, 535, 538–540
  - CERCLA (United States) 503–504
  - charterers of ships 704–705
  - civil law 502, 515–516
  - claims 435–436
  - clean-up 544–547
  - clean-up costs 868–870
  - commercial fishermen in United States 502–507
  - common law 280–282, 491–502, 516–519, 569–574, 720
  - compensation 491
  - consequential 329, 484–485, 547–548
  - contamination 520–521, 523–526
  - contracts 323–324
  - contributory negligence 136–137, 378, 469, 514, 731, 753, 760, 763, 821
  - costs 864–874
  - damages 524–525
  - decided cases 467, 515, 777, 904, 927
  - definition 489
  - delay to ships 544, 979
  - diversion of shipping 546
  - employees 534, 549–551
  - false invoices 552–554
  - ferry operators 538–539, 546
  - fishing industry and related claims
    - aquacultural establishments 438, 451, 458, 521, 567, 572, 1079
    - box manufacturer 529–530
    - buyers 489, 509, 520, 526
    - cessation or reduction of activities 526
    - commercial fishermen in United States 502–507
    - contamination of equipment 525–526
    - contamination of stocks fish farms 482, 520–52
      - sampling 1268–1270
      - wild fish and other sea food 523–525
    - contamination of water supplies 526
    - depuration 520–522, 525–526
    - destruction of stocks 521–523
    - diver 529, 546, 550
    - employees
      - claims by 435–436
      - claims by employers 549–550
      - social security payments 551
    - equipment, contamination of 525–526
    - exclusion zones
      - lifting of 523
      - losses outside scope of 279, 288, 376, 823, 880, 901
      - losses resulting from 525, 530–532
    - false invoices 552–554
    - feed suppliers 530
    - fish buyers 489, 509, 520, 526
    - fish farms 482, 520–521, 530
    - fish porters 530
    - fish processors
      - loss of market 531–533
      - reduced supplies of fish 527–529
    - fish selling agents 527
    - fish traders 527
    - fishermen 497–501, 520
    - fishing bans
      - losses resulting from 525, 530–532
      - losses outside scope of 279, 288, 376, 823, 880, 901
      - lifting of 819
    - fishing industry and related claims 435–436
    - future income, loss of 524–525
    - government orders 521–523
    - harvesting restrictions
      - losses resulting from 525, 530–532
      - losses outside scope of 279, 288, 376, 823, 880, 901
      - lifting of 819
    - haulage and transport companies 530–531
    - ice factory 530
    - interruption 525–526, 544–546
    - invoices 552
    - loss of market 531–533
    - marketing campaigns 533–534
    - net makers and repairers 529–530
    - offal collector 530
    - porters 530
    - price reduction 531–533
    - processors
      - loss of market 531–533
      - reduced supplies of fish 527–529
      - proof 927
      - technical issues
        
        university study, claim reliant on 520
    - public confidence 521–523
    - public perceptions 441–442. see also publicity
    - reduced catches 523–524
    - reduced demand for goods or services 529–531
    - reduction in prices and/or sales 531–533
    - sales reduction 531–533
    - salmon, farming methods 516, 526
    - sampling 1268–1270
    - selling agents 527
    - Page 1346
      
      slaughter of produce 549
    - smolt suppliers 518
    - stocks, contamination of
      - fish farms 482, 520–521, 530
      - wild fish and other sea food 523–525
    - testing 522
    - traders 527–529
    - university study, claim reliant on 520
    - unlicensed activities 551–552
    - water supplies, contamination of 526
    - wild fish and other sea food 523–525
  - foreseeability 395–396, 491–495
  - France 1257–1258
  - Fund Conventions 540, 545, 547
  - future income, loss of 524–525
  - insurance 548
  - interference with contractual claims 494–496
  - international conventions. see also fishing industry and related claims, tourist industry and related claims, claims relating to
    - general principles 14–15, 511–519
      - criteria applied by IOPC Funds 511–515
      - decisions of national courts 515–519
        
        civil law jurisdictions 502, 515–516
        
        common law jurisdictions 280–282, 491–502, 516–519, 569–574, 720
    - IOPC Funds’ decisions 519–553
    - ports and shipping
      - other claims for economic loss 435–436
      - miscellaneous issues 548–549
  - invoices 552
  - IOPC Funds 446–460
  - limitation of liability 906
  - Lloyd’s Open Form 657–658
  - loss of income 551–552
  - loss of market 531–533
  - loss of use or enjoyment 548
  - Louisiana 276, 494, 499–500, 506–509
  - marketing 533–534
  - media coverage, adverse effects of 41, 513, 531, 536, 539, 558, 1046
  - miscellaneous types of claim 546–547
  - national courts 443
  - national laws, general principles 330–331, 491–502
    - common law 280–282, 491–502, 516–519, 569–574, 720
      - position in UK 492–493
      - position in US 493–501
      - position in other common law jurisdictions 501–502
    - civil law jurisdictions 502, 515–516
  - natural resources 569–581, 590–592
  - negligence 249–251, 333–334, 392–396, 570, 1223–1224
  - nuisance 569–570
  - Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 504–507
  - outline of problems 489–490
  - physical damage 490–508, 545–547, 612–614
  - pollution 496–501, 906
  - pollution damage 126, 147–148, 341
  - ports 546–548
  - private actions 275, 420, 499, 1074–1075, 1081, 1084
  - property damage 486
  - proprietary rights 453, 481, 557, 902, 905
  - proximate cause 881
  - proximity 489–491, 501–502, 512–513, 517–520, 528–531, 534–536
  - public perceptions 441–442. see also publicity
  - publicity 450, 514, 531–534, 542–544
  - pure 55–56, 490–498, 501–502, 511–520, 533–534, 545–547, 741–747, 901–906
  - Robins Dry Dock 493–500, 504–510
  - Salvage Convention 1989 “damage to the environment” 10, 623, 643, 863, 876, 887
  - shipping 544–546
  - social security 551
  - state law 498–499, 508–510
  - strict liability 393–396, 570
  - technical issues 56, 437, 522, 556
  - tourist industry and related claims
    - beaches, operators of facilities on 537–538
    - bed-and-breakfast accommodation 535
    - camp sites 535, 1175, 1209, 1247
    - car ferry operators 538–539, 546
    - cash-and-carry wholesaler 540
    - establishments at uncontaminated locations in polluted areas 536
    - establishments outside polluted area 536–537
    - ferry operators 538–539, 546
    - general principles 534–535
    - goods and services, suppliers of 540–541
    - hotels 535–539
    - image, loss of 489, 543
    - laundry services 541
    - medical practice 539
    - postcard manufacturer 541
    - promotion campaigns 542–544
    - public bodies 463, 551
    - public perceptions 441–442. see also Media reports, Public expectations
    - restaurants 535–539
    - retailers 537
    - “second degree” claims 526–531, 539–542
    - self-catering accommodation 535
    - tax revenue 541–542
    - tour operators 538
    - tourism promotion campaigns 542–544
    - “touristic image”, loss of 489, 543
    - travel agents 538
    - wholesale suppliers 540
  - Page 1347
    
    traditional principles 490
  - treaties and conventions 291, 902
  - United Kingdom 492–493
  - United States 493–501
    - general principles 493–501
    - position under federal legislation 502–507
      - CERCLA 503–504
      - OPA-90 504–507
    - state laws 507–511
  - unlicensed activities 551–552
  - yachts 548
- EEZ. see Exclusive economic zone
- Electronic chart display and information systems (ECDIS) 952
- Emergencies. see also Contingency plans
  - National Contingency Plan 1071
  - Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund 258
  - OPRC 1990 1030, 1062–1069
  - OPRC-HNS 2000 1030, 1063
  - response 1029
    - United States, in 304–317, 1092–1112
  - salvage 1029
  - shipboard marine pollution emergency plans 1034–1036, 1111–1112
  - shipboard oil pollution emergency plans 1034–1036, 1111–1112
- Emissions 60–61, 82–84, 709–711, 983–994
- Employees. see also Manning
  - economic loss 434–437
  - fisheries 520
  - health and safety at work 317
- Enforcement. see also Enforcement of judgments
  - alcohol testing 1316
  - alter egos 720–727
  - CERCLA (United States) 399, 407–409, 416
  - Clean Water Act (United States) 228–229, 421
  - Criminal offenses 1315
  - drug testing 1315
  - hazardous or noxious substances 31, 372, 462, 621, 733, 1063, 1132
  - hazardous waste 1200–1208
  - MARPOL 985–986
  - pollution prevention 985–986
  - standards 1227–1248
- Enforcement of judgments
  - Civil Liability Conventions 1971 and 1992 164–166
    - arrest 167–168
    - limitation funds 201, 346
    - mutual 167
    - recognition of judgments 166–168, 352–353
    - release from arrest 165–169
    - security 161–162
  - Fund Convention 1992, relevance to 432, 445, 452, 559, 1327
  - Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 390
  - Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 51–52, 229–254, 670–673, 1011–1018, 1302–1306
- Environmental damage. see also Natural resources
  - assessment. see Natural resources
  - bunker spills 718, 732
  - compensation. see Marine environment, Natural resources
  - “damage to the environment” (Salvage Convention 1989)
    - definition 612–615
    - location of damage 615
    - mid-ocean casualty 625, 631
    - nature of damage 612–613
      - economic loss 434–437
    - scale of damage 613–615
    - substantial 613–614
    - threat of damage
      - apprehension of danger 621–622
      - degree of risk 621
      - source of threat 621
  - damages. see Natural resources
  - ecological damages, awards 70, 80, 148, 437, 568, 577, 656
  - Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010
    - “damage”, definition 372–373
  - Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 590–600
  - policy considerations 443–444, 556–558
  - post-incident studies 565–568
  - salvors. see also Salvage
    - duties of salvor 615–617
    - duties of shipowner and other parties 616–617
    - efforts to prevent or minimise pollution damage
      - compensation outside the law of salvage 647
      - remuneration in the law of salvage legal framework 632–633
        
        Lloyd’s Open Form 657–658
        
        modern law and practice, development of 478, 1046, 1201
        
        Salvage Convention 1989 10, 623, 643, 863, 876, 887
        
        “damage to the environment”, definition, see above
        
        enhanced awards (Art. 13) 618
        
        special compensation (Art. 14) 619–631
    - liability for pollution damage 517, 702, 738, 849
    - moral damages, awards 70, 80, 148, 190, 437, 852
    - Tank Vessel Act 1936 (United States) 1006–1009
    - technical issues 56, 437, 522, 556
- Environmental Protection Agency (United States)
  - CERCLA (United States) 226–227, 390
  - emissions 60–61, 82–84, 983–994
  - hazardous and noxious substances 226, 1109
  - National Contingency Plan 1073
  - response measures in the United States 1073
- Equipment 467–468
  - Erika I 68–69
  - Erika II 69, 82, 802, 1060
  - Erika III 72, 1060
- Page 1348
  
  Erika incident
  - cargo owner, liability for pollution 668, 684–685, 702, 704
  - changes in law and practice, led to
    - coastal state control 1240–1244
    - EU Directive on Criminal Sanctions for Ship- source Pollution 1292–1297
    - increase in compensation limits 139, 142, 151, 187
    - Maritime Assistance Services (MAS) 1032–1033
    - quality shipping, measures to promote 91, 1246
    - single hull tankers
      - accelerated phase-out 91
      - ban on carriage of heavy grades of oil 1242
    - Special Coastal Maritime Court 1258
    - STOPIA and TOPIA 151, 213
    - Supplementary Fund 209–213
  - charterer, liability for pollution
    - channelling provisions 138, 652–653
    - vetting procedures 680–683
    - waste, disposal of 684–685
  - CLC 92 and Fund Convention 1992
    - admissibility of claims 743–744
    - channelling provisions
      - charterer 704–705
      - classification societies 1244–1246
      - manager 141–146
      - servants or agents 141–143
    - maximum amount of compensation
      - date of conversion into national currency 156–157, 188–189
      - increase 39–40, 68–69, 190–191, 197–198
  - criminal proceedings
    - civil claims, relationship with 139–140
    - French legislation 1290–1292
    - international law, relationship with 1249–1250, 1281–1283, 1288–1290
      - MARPOL 1249–1250, 1281, 1290
      - UNCLOS 6, 99, 943, 949, 1233, 1272, 1292, 1295–1297, 1327
  - disposal of waste 684–685
  - ecological damages 47–48
  - economic loss 434–437
  - Erika I 68–69
  - Erika II 69, 82, 802, 1060
  - Erika III 72, 1060
  - EU Waste Framework Directive, liability under 683–684
  - fair treatment of defendants 1279
  - incident, summary 68–70
  - major oil company
    - approval clauses 706
    - approval of ship, liability for 680, 703, 706
    - channelling provisions, denied benefit 144, 687
    - response costs 408–409, 701–706
    - standing last in queue for compensation 191
  - moral damages 70, 80, 148, 437, 556
  - Third Intersessional Working Group, 1992 Fund 68–72, 104, 164, 564, 1247
  - vetting procedures 680–683
  - waste, disposal 684–685
- Escort vessels 85, 274, 1045, 1052, 1059, 1242
- EU Directive on Criminal Sanctions for Ship-source Pollution 1292–1297
  - adoption 1294
  - background 1292–1293
  - draft Directive 1293–1294
    - Explanatory Memorandum 1250, 1292
    - objections of industry and seafaring bodies 1293
    - INTERTANKO case (ECJ) 1294–1297
    - Report on draft Directive by European Parliament 1293–1294
- EU Ship Recycling Regulation 1219–1223
  - approved facilities 1220–1222
  - beaching 1220–1222
  - enforcement and compliance 1217–129, 1222
  - Inventory of Hazardous Materials (IHM) 1212–1222
    - Inventory Certificate (IC) 1219
    - Statement of Compliance (SOC) 985, 1216, 1219
  - relationship with Basel regime and EU Waste Shipment Regulation 1196–1211
  - review of 70–72
  - scope 1219
- EU Waste Shipment Regulation 1185–1187
  - classification of shipments 1187
  - export of waste for disposal 1185–1186
  - export of waste for recovery 1186–1187
  - “waste”, meaning 1196–1200
- Exclusive economic zone (EEZ)
  - Bunkers Convention 298, 349–350, 447–448, 653, 718–719, 835
  - Civil Liability Convention 1992 97–170, 344, 652–653, 716–718
  - concept of, created by UNCLOS 6, 99, 943, 949, 1233, 1272, 1292, 1295–1297, 1327
  - definition 945–946
  - enforcement jurisdiction in 943, 946, 949, 1232, 1236, 1243, 1281
  - establishment, notification 15, 1236
  - financial responsibility 261–267, 425–426
  - fisheries 520
  - Fund Convention 1992 178
  - Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362
  - intervention 1120–1121, 1241–1242
  - IOPC Funds 178
  - legislative jurisdiction in 943–946, 1293–1296
  - lightering 1014–1016
  - Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 217, 221, 229, 234–235, 237, 261
  - pollution preventive standards
    - enforcement in EEZ by port and coastal states 44, 949, 1040, 1232, 1241
  - Page 1349
    
    regulation in EEZ by port and coastal states 948–949, 1232
  - standards. see pollution preventive standards
  - state intervention 1038–1044
  - transshipment 472, 477, 624, 873, 1015
  - United States 226, 397, 1022–1024, 1059, 1143
  - Wreck Removal Convention 1127–1128
- Exercises 1102, 1115–1116
- Explosions
  - Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362
  - special compensation 619–631
- Export controls on waste shipments 1185–1187
- Exxon Valdez incident 48–51
  - cargo owners and charterers 702
  - cleanup 457
  - criminal charges 48–49
  - damages 48–50
    - punitive 49–50
  - economic loss 48–50, 497–498, 507
  - fines 48
  - habitats 48
  - indigenous people 48, 498
  - manning 1014
  - Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 556
  - P&I Clubs 808, 814
  - shareholder liability 726
  - ship financiers 769
  - response 52–53
- Facilities
  - CERCLA (United States) 417–419
  - definition 320
  - financial responsibility 261–267, 425–426
  - lender liability 775–788
  - offshore 231, 283–285
  - Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 231–231
  - OILPOL 54, 22, 464
  - OPRC 1990 12, 19, 53, 82, 295, 466, 1030, 1062, 1067–1069
  - OPRC-HNS 2000 1030, 1063
  - shore reception 34, 959, 978–981, 1010
- Fair treatment of seafarers 1280–1288. see also Criminal liability
  - IMO Guidelines 1055–1060, 1236
- False invoices 552–554
- Federal Water Pollution Control Act (United States). see Clean Water Act
- Ferries 539, 989, 1025
- Finance. see Ship finance
- Financial responsibility. see also Certificates of Financial Responsibility, Financial security
  - bunker spills 718, 732
  - CERCLA (United States) 425
  - charterers 704–705
  - clean-up costs 868–870
  - damages 261–267, 425–426
  - evidence 1265–1271
  - exclusive economic zone 100, 945–946, 949, 1040–1041, 1295–1296
  - fines 407
  - fleet certificates 261
  - guarantors 206–207, 648, 825–854
  - hazardous substances 1109–1110
  - insurance 262–267
  - jurisdiction 267–269
  - legal proceedings 205–206, 211–212
  - lender liability 775–788
  - letters of credit 265
  - navigable waters 219–220, 234–236
  - notice 266
  - offshore facilities 231
  - Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 51, 261–267
  - operators 261–267
  - Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act Amendments (United States) 45–46
  - penalties 261
  - responsible party 230–232, 595
  - self-insurance 264
  - service of process 266
  - shipowners 356–358
  - state law 47
  - sureties 265
  - tonnage 151–152
  - Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act (United States) 46
- Financial security. see also Arrest, Financial responsibility, Guarantors, Security
  - Blue Cards 839–841
  - Bunkers Convention 298, 349–350, 447–448, 653, 718–719, 835
  - Certification 161–162, 350–352, 382–383, 826–827, 962–963, 972, 978, 984–985, 995, 999, 1002, 1138–1140, 1219–1220, 1228
  - Civil Liability Conventions 920–921
  - feature of compensation regimes 44
  - HNS Convention 361–363, 487–488, 716–718
  - providers
    - insurers 843–844
    - direct rights against 737–738
  - sanctions risks 216, 801, 818, 833–834
  - Wreck Removal Convention 298–299, 376, 435, 835–838
- Fines and penalties
  - CERCLA (United States) 415–420, 422, 577–579
  - clean-up costs 868–870
  - Clean Water Act (United States) 224–228
  - criminal offences 398–399, 405–407, 1306–1307
  - Federal Sentencing Guidelines 1309–1310
  - financial responsibility 261–267, 425–426
  - hazardous waste 1200–1208
  - loss doubling 1305–1309
  - Page 1350
    
    New York and Other Harbors Deposit of Refuse Prohibition Act 1888 (United States) 222
  - Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 224–228
  - P&I Club cover 802–803
  - Refuse Act (United States) 1300–1301
  - Sentencing Reform Act 1984 (United States) 1308–1309
  - wrecks 762–763, 1132–1135
- Fires
  - Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362
  - property damage 486
  - salvage 612–615
  - special compensation 619–631
- Fishing and related industries. see also Fishing vessels
  - aquacultural establishments 438, 451, 458, 521, 567, 572, 1079
  - bans 525
    - lifting of 523
    - losses outside scope of 279, 288, 376, 823, 880, 901
    - losses resulting from 525, 530–532
  - box manufacturer 529–530
  - buyers 489, 509, 520, 526
  - cessation or reduction of activities 526
  - Civil Liability Convention 920–921
  - claims by 435–436
  - commercial fishermen in United States 502–507
  - contamination of equipment 525–526
  - contamination of stocks
    - fish farms 482, 520–521, 530
    - sampling 1268–1270
    - wild fish and other sea food 523–525
  - contamination of water supplies 526
  - criminal offences 398–399, 405–407, 1306–1307
  - depuration 520–522, 525–526
  - destruction of stocks 521–523
  - diver 529, 546, 550, 651, 664, 805, 1023, 1213
  - economic loss 434–437
  - employees 534, 549–551
    - claims by 435–436
    - employers, claims by 549–550
    - social security payments 551
  - equipment 467–468
  - exclusion zones
    - lifting of 523
    - losses outside scope of 279, 288, 376, 823, 880, 901
    - losses resulting from 525, 530–532
  - exclusive economic zone 100, 945–946, 949, 1040–1041, 1295–1296
  - false invoices 552–554
  - feed suppliers 530
  - fish farms 482, 520–521, 530
  - fishermen 497–501, 520
  - foreseeability 395–396, 491–495
  - Fund Convention 1971 30–31
  - future income, loss of 524–525
  - goods and services, reduced demand for 529–531
  - government orders 521–523
  - harvesting restrictions
    - lifting of 523
    - losses outside scope of 279, 288, 376, 823, 880, 901
    - losses resulting from 525, 530–532
  - haulage 530–531
  - ice factory 530
  - interruption 525–526, 544–546
  - invoices 552
  - IOPC Funds 446–460
  - licensing 46–47
  - loss of future income 524–525
  - loss of market 531–533
  - loss of profits 504–505, 525–526
  - marketing 533–534
  - National Contingency Plan 1071
  - national laws 520–531
  - natural resources 569–581, 590–592
  - net makers and repairers 529–530
  - offal collector 530
  - porters 530
  - price reduction 531–533
  - processors
    - loss of market 531–533
    - reduced supplies of fish 527–529
  - proof
    - university study, claim reliant on 520
  - property damage 486
  - proximity 489–491, 501–502, 512–513, 517–520, 528–531, 534–536
  - public confidence 521–523
  - public perceptions 441–442
  - publicity 450, 514, 531–534, 542–544
  - reduced catches 523–524
  - reduced demand for goods or services 529–531
  - reduction in price and/or sales 531–533
  - related industries 48–49, 527–529
- remoteness 491
  - restrictions 168–168, 525, 744–745, 1235–1236
  - salmon, farming methods 516, 526
  - sampling 1268–1270
  - selling agents 527
  - slaughter of produce 549
  - smolt 530
  - stocks, contamination of
    - fish farms 482, 520–521, 530
    - wild fish and other sea food 523–525
  - testing 1315
  - traders 527–529
  - transport 122–123, 530–531
  - water supplies, contamination of 526
  - wild fish and other sea food 523–525
- Fishing vessels
  - bunker spills 718, 732
- Page 1351
  
  Flag state control 1228–1231
  - administration 387
    - enhancement of flag state control 1230–1231
    - guidelines on flag state performance 1231
    - IMO Member State Audit Scheme 1231
  - international law 946–948
    - casualty inquiries 1229
    - investigation and prosecution of violations 1228–1229
    - survey and certification of ships 1228
- Fleet Factors 783–785
- Floating offshore wind turbines (FOWTs). see Offshore craft
- Floating platforms. see Offshore craft
- Floating production, storage and offloading units (FPSOs). see Offshore craft
- Floating storage units (FSUs). see Offshore craft
- “Flying Dutchmen” 1047
- Foreseeability
  - economic loss 434–437
  - fisheries 395–396, 491–495
  - US hazardous and noxious substances 487
- Forum non conveniens 164, 346, 509–510, 934
- FPSOs. see Offshore craft
- Friends of the Earth 1209–1213
- FSUs. see Offshore craft
- Fund Conventions 1971 and 1992 540, 545, 547. see also Civil Liability Conventions 1969 and 1992, IOPC Funds
  - Fund Convention 1971
    - background 30–31
    - Brussels conference 1971 30–31
    - pollution damage, definition (as per CLC 69) 126, 147–148, 341
    - termination 58
  - Fund Convention 1992
    - arrest of ships, relevance to 167–168
    - bunker spills 718, 732. see Civil Liability Conventions 1969 and 1992
    - cases not covered by 30
    - charterers
      - claims by 435–436
      - recourse action against
        
        by shipowner 683–684
        
        limitation of liability 703
      - Civil Liability Conventions, relationship with 920–921
      - claims
        
        admissibility and assessment 185–18. see also claims, Civil Liability Conventions 1969 and 1992, Criteria for admissibility of claims (IOPC Funds)
        
        claim settlement procedures 194–206
        
        determination and settlement 195–196
        
        legal proceedings 205–206, 211–212
        
        manual 446–448
        
        provisional payments 175
      - compensation
        
        cases in which payable 151
        
        damage exceeds liability limit under CLC 183–184
        
        no liability under CLC 179–181
        
        shipowner exonerated from liability 180–181
        
        unidentified ship 179–180
        
        shipowner financially incapable 844
        
        assets insufficient 182
        
        financial security requirements
        
        not applicable 166, 244
        
        not complied with 1255
        
        insurance cover insufficient 182
        
        shipowner’s expenses 160–161, 184, 386
      - distribution 160, 189–192
      - limits
        
        amounts 112, 558, 794, 915, 934–936
        
        conversion into national currency 156–157, 188–189
        
        interest awarded against shipowner, effect of 188
        
        interest paid or payable by IOPC Funds 188
        
        natural phenomenon 132–133, 187–188
        
        unit of account 188–189
    - consistent application, importance of 147, 185, 444–445, 858, 924
    - contributions. see IOPC Funds
    - CRISTAL, comparison with 29–31
    - criteria for admissibility of claims. see Criteria for admissibility of claims (IOPC Funds)
    - economic loss. see Economic loss
    - enforcement of judgments against shipowners 163–168, 352–353, 390
    - entry into force 13–14, 362–363
    - exclusive economic zone 100, 945–946, 949, 1040–1041, 1295–1296
    - financial limits. see limit of Funds’ liability
    - geographical scope 99
    - incident. see Civil Liability Conventions
    - interest
      - payable by contributors to Funds 669
      - payable by IOPC Funds to claimants 186
        
        effect on Funds’ liability limit 188
      - payable by shipowner to claimants 187
      - effect on Funds’ liability limit 188
    - International Maritime Organization 7–8, 294–295, 1055–1060, 1231, 1236
    - IOPC Funds. see IOPC Funds
    - limit of Fund’s liability 187–192
      - amounts 112, 558, 794, 915, 934–936
      - conversion into national currency 156–157, 188–189
      - distribution of available compensation 160, 189–192
      - natural phenomenon 132–133, 187–188
      - Page 1352
        
        interest, effect of. see interest
      - unit of account 188–189
    - limitation of actions. see time limit for proceedings
    - mobile offshore units 283, 299, 371–372
    - mystery spill. see unidentified ship, pollution from
    - natural resources. see Marine Environment
      - oil 95–97
    - oil barges 107–108
    - owner, definition 101–102
    - persistent oil 123–124
    - pollution damage, definition (as per CLC 92) 126, 147–148, 341
    - preventive measures. see Civil Liability Conventions
    - property damage 486
    - Protocol 1984 40–41
      - United States, decision not to ratify 35
    - Protocol 1992 54
      - entry into force 13–14, 362–363
    - purpose 14
    - receivers of oil. see IOPC Funds
    - recourse, subrogation to rights of owner 158, 200, 208–209, 745, 751, 935
    - relationship between Fund Conventions 461
    - salvage and related operations
      - pre-spill costs 418, 432, 475, 593
      - preventive measures 100–101, 178–179, 207–208, 343–344
    - ship
      - definitions 102–123, 340
      - incident involving two or more 129, 374
      - small 151, 215, 355, 375
      - state-owned 123
      - tanker in ballast 180, 831
      - warships 123, 137
    - ship owners, definition. see owner
    - subrogation 158, 200, 208–209, 745, 751, 935
    - time limits for proceedings
      - claim for compensation 38, 139, 193
        
        notification of proceedings under CLC 162, 192–193
        
        legal actions against Fund 185
      - claim for indemnification under 1971 Convention 200
    - transitional period 54, 93, 462, 850
    - unidentified ships, pollution from 179–180
    - Working Groups. see IOPC Funds, Intersessional Working Groups

Garbage 980–983, 1264
Gas industry. see Oil and gas industry
General average
- bunker spills 718, 732
- burden of proof 927
- cargo 700–701
- Civil Liability Conventions 920–921
- clean-up costs 868–870
- collision 751–752, 885
- Comité Maritime International 862
- common safety provisions 780
- contributions 876–877
- costs 864–874
- enhanced awards to salvors 618
- expenses 160–161, 184, 386
- Fund Conventions 472, 868–869, 876
- guarantors 206–207, 648, 825–854
- insurance 861–863
- Institute Time Clauses (Hulls) 877–879
- IOPC Funds 866
- marine property insurance 904–906
  - cargo policies 877–879
  - hull policies 792, 815, 860, 88
- P&I Clubs 472, 859, 862, 879
- ports
  - remaining in 882–883
  - conditions of entry into or departure from 861, 865–866, 868–869, 873–876
- precautions 871–872
- preventive measures 864, 866–873, 876–878
- purpose of measures 471–472, 866–868
- repairs 881
- response 869–871
- Rule Paramount 872
- sacrifice 874
- salvage 919–920
- Salvage Convention 1989 10, 623, 643, 863, 876, 887
- special compensation 619–631
- Sydney Compromise 862, 868, 875, 878
- third parties 871, 874, 887
- total loss 879–881
- York-Antwerp Rules
  - 1994 revision 862
General Excess Loss Reinsurance Contract 796–797
“Ghost Ships” 75, 1182, 1202, 1208–1211
Gold franc
- liability limit, unit of account
  - Brussels Limitation Convention 1957 894
  - Civil Liability Convention 1969 28
    - conversion into national currency 156–157, 188–189
- Fund Convention 1971 30–31, 39
  - SDR, replacement by 28, 894
Governing law
- P&I cover 809–825
Government authorities. see also Public authorities
- admittance to ports 1029, 1048
- enforcement. see Enforcement
- international compensation Conventions
  - Page 1353
    
    contributory negligence 136–137, 378, 469, 514, 731, 753, 760, 763, 821
  - default in maintenance of navigational aids 134–136
  - fishing and related industries
    - fishing bans
      - lifting of 523
      - losses resulting from 525, 530–532
    - marine environment, claims for damage to 436–440
    - oil spill response
      - fixed costs 444, 450, 463–457, 650, 1058
      - offshore operations 285–291
        
        use of dispersants 310, 314, 1098
      - public expectations 440, 454
    - salvage and related operations
      - purpose of measures 471–472
- intervention. see Intervention Convention 1969
- official orders, cost of complying with
  - general average, admissibility in
    - York-Antwerp Rules 1974 227
    - York-Antwerp Rules 1994 and 2016 227
- P&I cover 799, 809
- particular average 879
- Pollution Hazard Clause 883–885
- preparedness, response and co-operation. see OPRC 1990, OPRC-HNS 2000
- United States
  - response to an incident 467–468, 766–768, 1071–1117
Greenhouse gas emissions
- Clydebank Declaration 2021 83
- Kyoto Protocol 1997 60
- Paris Agreement 2015 83
- Poseidon Principles 89–90, 788–790
- UN Framework Convention on Climate Change
  - COP 26, 83, 91
Greenpeace 10, 1162, 1199, 1201, 1203, 1206–1207, 1213
Group actions. see Class actions
Guarantees. see also Guarantors
- condition of entry into port
  - general average 873–874
  - P&I cover 809–825
  - salvage operations 622
- limitation fund, establishment of by
  - Civil Liability Conventions 201, 346
  - Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362
- parent company. see ship finance
- compensation, security for payment to salvor 619–630
- ship finance, security for 89–90
Guarantors. see also Guarantees
- cancellation 843
- CERCLA (United States) 415–420, 422, 577–579
- Civil Liability Conventions
  - direct action against, rights of 825–854
  - enforcement of judgments, relevance to 163–168, 352–353, 390
  - financial security 161–162, 181–183, 301–302, 382–383, 711, 737–738, 825–843, 1138–1140
  - IOPC Funds, liability to 206
- International Group of P&I Clubs 194–195, 793–794
- Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 51–52, 229–254, 670–673, 1011–1018, 1302–1306
- ship finance, security for 89–90
Guidelines
- fines 1309–1310
- IMO Guidelines. see Table of International Instruments and Agreements
- National Contingency Plan 1071
- natural resources 569–581, 590–592
- OPRC 1990 12, 19, 53, 82, 295, 466, 1030, 1062, 1067–1069
- OPRC-HNS 2000 1030, 1063
- penalties 261
- report of incident
  - IMO Guidelines 1055–1060, 1236
  - vessel response plans 1034–1038, 1092–1103, 1108–1111
- response measures in the United States 706, 767–768, 1274–1275
- vessel response plans 1034–1038, 1092–1112
Gulf of Mexico 1015–1016
Gulf War 439, 1067

Habitats
- Exxon Valdez 48–51
- Habitat Equivalency Analysis 598
- natural resources 569–581, 590–592
Hazardous and noxious substances. see also Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention, Hazardous waste, US hazardous and noxious substances
- abnormally dangerous activities 1097
- CERCLA (United States) 415–420, 422, 577–579
- certification 161–162, 350–352, 382–383, 826–827, 962–963, 972, 978, 984–985, 995, 999, 1002, 1138–1140, 1219–1220, 1228
- charterers 704–705
- clean-up 391
- clean-up costs 868–870
- Clean Water Act (United States) 45, 224–229, 397–398, 420–421, 568–572, 575–577, 1302–1306
- containers 679, 902
- Dangerous Cargo Manifest 395, 697
- DOT Regulations 1019
- EU Environmental Liability Directive 2004 364–365
- financial responsibility 261–267, 425–426
- fines 1309–1310
- Hazardous Materials Transportation Uniform Safety Act (United States) 1018
- IMDG Code 695, 977
- labelling 695, 953, 976–977, 982
- natural resources 569–581, 590–592
- Page 1354
  
  non-persistent oil 21
- Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 51–52, 229–254, 670–673, 1011–1018, 1302–1306
- OPRC 1990 12, 19, 53, 82, 295, 466, 1030, 1062, 1067–1069
- OPRC-HNS 2000 1030, 1063
- penalties 261
- Ports and Waterways Safety Act (United States) 1004–1006
- property damage 486
- registration statement 1019
- response measures in the United States 706, 767–768, 1274–1275
- stowage 679–680
- Tank Vessel Act 1936 (United States) 1006–1009
- terrorism 66–67, 133–134, 821–822, 1116
- Texas City Disaster 21, 92, 360, 396, 488, 694
- training 1101–1102
- transport 122–123, 530–531
- undeclared hazards 92
- uniformity 1020
Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention (HNSC)
- HNSC 1996
  - background to and adoption of 359–362
  - obstacles to support 362–364
  - ratifications insufficient 182
- HNSC 2010
  - acts or omissions 378, 675–683, 756–759, 924–925
  - background to and adoption of 359–362
  - ballast 370, 1327
  - “Bulk HNS” 370, 380, 388
  - carriage by sea 371–372
  - channelling provisions 138, 652–653
  - charterers 704–705
  - chemicals 79, 360, 370
  - Civil Liability Conventions 920–921
  - claims 435–436
  - clean-up 365, 451, 468, 652, 899
  - coal 337, 370, 376
  - compensation 383–390
  - conduct 145–147
  - containers 360, 376, 384
  - contamination 299, 364, 368, 372, 435, 468, 487
  - contracts 323–324
  - contributory negligence 378, 469
  - costs 864–874
  - damage 372–373
  - declarations 376
  - “deeming” provision 212, 373
  - definitions 369–374
  - enforcement of judgments 1, 352–353, 390
  - entry into force 13–14, 362–363
  - environmental damage 439–440, 557, 559–562, 568
  - excluded claims 374–375
  - excluded damage 375
  - excluded ships 375–376
  - exclusive economic zone 368, 376, 389, 397
  - expenses 160–161, 184, 386
  - explosions 21, 276, 283, 304–310, 314–315
  - financial security 382–383
  - fires 21, 276, 283, 304–310, 314–315
  - geographical scope 368–369
  - hazardous and noxious substances 369–371
  - HNS Fund 383–387
  - “incident” 373–374
  - joint and several liability 131, 342, 670–671, 715–716
    - conduct barring 381
    - shipowner 376–383
  - limitation fund 201, 346
    - establishment and distribution of 160, 189–192
  - limitation of liability
    - HNS Fund 383–387
  - mobile offshore units 283, 299, 371–372
  - negligence 249–251, 333–334, 392–396, 570, 1223–1224
  - “owner” 371
  - “pollution damage” 126, 147–148, 341
  - property damage 368, 372
  - remedies 138–161, 378–379, 491
  - residues 114–117
  - scope 367–376
  - security 161–162
  - “ship” 371
    - state-owned 123
    - unidentified 179–180
  - shipowners 376–383
    - financially incapable of meeting obligations 844
  - small ships 375
  - social security 551
  - state-owned ships 123, 184
  - strict liability 393–396, 570
  - territorial sea 368, 376
  - threat removal 399–402, 408–409, 416–422
  - time limits 1140
  - tonnage 151–152
  - unidentified ships 179–180
  - Wreck Removal Convention 376
Hazardous waste 1200–1208
- implications 1200–1201
- Superfund 398–402, 410–411, 415–416, 425–427, 1089–1090
- transboundary movement. see also Shipment of waste
Health and safety at work 317
Hebei Spirit incident 76–77
- fair treatment of defendants 1279
- interim payments
  - restrictions on 168–168, 525, 744–745, 1235–1236
HNS. see Hazardous and noxious substances
HNS Fund. see Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention (HNSC), HNSC 2010
Page 1355

Hong Kong International Convention for the Safe and Environmentally Sound Recycling of Ships 75, 1193–1195, 1212, 1215–1216
- Certificates
  - Inventory of Hazardous Materials 1212–1222
- enforcement and compliance 1217–1219, 1222
- entry into force requirements 13–14, 362–363
- hazardous materials inventory and certificate 1214–1215
- Inventory of Hazardous Materials (IHM) 1212–1222
- recycling requirements 1216–1217
- scope 1213–1214
- Ship Recycling Facilities 1215–1216
Hotels 535–539
Hull and cargo insurance 808, 859
- collisions 751–752, 885
- costs 864–874
- exclusion of claims recoverable under 815–816
- general average 647
- particular average 879
- Pollution Hazard Clause 883–885
- pollution preventive measures 100–101, 178–179, 207–208, 343–344
- repairs 881
- total loss 879–881
Hydra Insurance Co. Ltd 795–797

ICS (International Chamber of Shipping) 388, 794, 1057, 1112–1113, 1231, 1324
IGS (inert gas systems) 21, 360, 438, 1026
ILO (International Labour Organization) 7, 75, 77, 1194, 1208, 1212, 1218, 1286
IMCO (Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization). see International Maritime Organization
IMDG (International Maritime Dangerous Goods) Code 370, 375, 695–697, 953, 976–977
Immunity. see also State immunity
- Clean Water Act (United States) 226
- conduct barring 145–147
- criminal offences 398–399, 405–407, 1306–1307
- prosecution, from 1318
- qualified individual 1096–1098
- responder 343, 767–768, 1098
- salvors and responder 662–663
- statutory immunity of charters 669–670
- suit under international conventions, from 760–761
- “use immunity” 226, 1305, 138
IMO (International Maritime Organization)
- constitution 7–8
- documents 8, 1325
- GISIS 1325
- IMCO, formerly known as 7, 27, 28
- IMODOCS 1325
- IOPC Funds 173
- Legal Committee. see Legal Committee (IMO)
- MEPC. see Marine Environment Protection Committee
- Member State Audit Scheme (IMSAS) 1231
- MSC. see Maritime Safety Committee
- online information 1325
- publications 1325
Implementation of international law 15–16
Import controls on waste shipments 1184–1185
IMSAS (IMO Member State Audit Scheme) 1231
- SOLAS 956
- MARPOL 960
“Incident”
- definition
  - Bunkers Convention 2001 341
  - Civil Liability Convention 1992 126–129
  - Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 373
  - Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 229, 233–234, 236–237, 240, 250
- grave and imminent threat of pollution 128
- intervening act or omission 127
- “maritime casualty”
  - Intervention Convention 1969 1039
  - Wreck Removal Convention 2007 1129
- “substantial threat” of discharge of oil (United States), liability of responsible party 229, 233–234
- two or more ships involved 129
Incident Command System 1112–1115
Incineration 989–990
Indemnification under Fund Convention 1971 200
- subrogation against shipowner or guarantor, effect on 199–200, 206–208
- subrogation against third parties 207–208
- time limit for claim 352, 389–390
Indemnities
- bareboat charters 775, 782, 795
- CERCLA (United States) 410
- charterers 704–705
- clean-up costs 868–870
- contribution, and 254–257
- employment clause in time charter 698–699
- environmental risks 325–329
- exceptions 332–335
- and guarantees 778
- insurer’s right against owner 838
- issues relating to 329–335
- lender liability 775–788
- Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 254–256
- scope 331–332
Indigenous persons 48
Industry controls on ship safety standards 1244–1247
- classification societies 1244–1246
- insurance industry and other charterers 704–705
Industry developments
- implications of OPA-90 504–507
Industry schemes. see TOVALOP, CRISTAL, STOPIA, TOPIA
Inert gas systems (IGS) 21, 360, 438, 1026
Page 1356

Injuctions
- CERCLA (United States) 410
- Clean Water Act (United States) 229
Innocent passage 944–948, 1043–1044
Inspections 995–996
- casualty investigations 955, 1061, 1162, 1229
- charterers 704–705
- evidence obtained from 1270–1271
- lightering 1014–1016
- port state control 958–959, 979, 985–986
- response resources 1107
- Tank Vessel Act 1936 (United States) 1007–1008
Institute Clauses 772–773, 860, 879
Insurance. see also Hull and cargo insurance, P&I Clubs
- bareboat charterers 713
- Bunkers Convention 2001 350–352
- cargo. see Hull and cargo insurance
- CERCLA (United States) 425–426
- certificates of financial responsibility (United States) 52, 261–267, 425–426
- certification
  - Bunkers Convention 2001 350–352
  - charterparty clauses requiring 711
  - Civil Liability Convention 1992 161
  - Wreck Removal Convention 1138–1139
- charterers
  - insurance of charterers’ risks 713–714
  - requirement to arrange and pay for insurance 711–712
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 161
- collisions, pollution resulting from 751–752
- compulsory 825, 856, 857
- demise charterers 713
- financial responsibility under Oil Pollution Act 1990 (US) 52, 261–267, 425–426, 843
- financial security under international regimes 161–162, 181–183, 301–302, 382–383, 711, 737–738, 825–843, 1138–1140
- general average 876–879
- guarantors 206–207, 648, 825–854. see also financial responsibility, financial security
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362
- hull. see Hull and cargo insurance
- industry 9, 791–794, 859–860, 1246–1247
- insufficient 182
- law governing contract 846–849
- lenders. see ship finance
- liability insurance. see P&I Clubs
- mortgagees. see ship finance
- offshore craft 335–336
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
- P&I Clubs 791–794
- proximate cause 881
- salvage 663–666
- ship finance 771–772
  - Mortgagees’ Additional Perils (Pollution) Insurance 774–775
  - Mortgagees’ Interest Insurance 772–774
- war risks 821–822
- wilful misconduct 811–813
- Wreck Removal Convention 2007 1138–1139
Insurance Directive on the Insurance of Shipowners for Maritime Claims 72, 793
Insurance industry
- controls on ship safety standards 1244–1247
- hull and cargo insurers 859–860
- NGOs at international bodies 9
- P&I Clubs and other liability insurers 791–794
Interest
- claims against owner 188
- limitation fund 157–158
- paid or payable by the Fund 186, 188
- payable by contributors to IOPC Funds 176
- payable by IOPC Funds to claimants 186
- payable by shipowner to claimants
  - effect on Funds’ liability limit 188
- payment of 186–187
- public 5
Interest groups. see Special interest groups
Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO). see International Maritime Organization
Interim payments
- Civil Liability Conventions 159–160
- IOPC Funds 196–205
- London Limitation Convention (LLMC) 932–935
Internal exercises 1115–1116
Internal waters
- definition, UNCLOS 944
- regulation in by coastal states 948
International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) 9, 963, 1245–1246
International Association of Dry Bulk Cargo Shipowners (INTERCARGO) 9, 110, 682, 1294
International Association of Independent Tanker Owners. see INTERTANKO
International Chamber of Shipping (ICS) 9, 71, 83, 90, 348, 352, 641, 822, 841, 856, 924, 961, 970, 1193, 1212, 1214, 1216, 1231, 1256, 1286, 1234
International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters. see Polar Code (IMO)
International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments. see Ballast Water Management Convention
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships. see MARPOL
International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil 1954. see OILPOL
International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea. see SOLAS
Page 1357

International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage, 2001. see Bunkers Convention 2001
International Convention on Salvage 1989. see Salvage Convention 1989
International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-Fouling Systems on Ships. see Anti-Fouling Convention
International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage. see Fund Convention 1971, Fund Convention 1992
International Convention on Tonnage Measurement of Ships 1969
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 97–170, 344, 652–653, 716–718
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362
International Convention Relating to the Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties. see Intervention Convention 1969
International Group of P&I Clubs 194–195, 793–794. see also P&I Clubs
- guarantors 206–207, 648, 825–854
- Memorandum of Understanding with IOPC Funds 194–195
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
International Labour Organization (ILO) 7, 75, 77, 1194, 1208, 1212, 1218, 1286
International laws and treaties. also. see United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT)
- amendment 14
- compensation regimes 10–11, 44
- compliance 17
- differences from implementing legislation 15
- effect, general principles 12–18
- entry into force 13–14
- framework 6
- interpretation 16
- prevention, reduction and control of pollution 11–12
International Legal Conference on Marine Pollution Damage 1969 (Brussels) 28, 857
International Maritime Bureau 87
International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code 370, 375, 695–697, 953, 976–977
International Maritime Organization. see IMO
International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds. see IOPC Funds
International organisations 7–10
International regimes. see international laws
International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea (COLREGs) 32–33
International rules to prevent pollution from ships 7, 33–34, 52–53
- Control of Harmful Anti-fouling Systems on Ships 994–997
  - provisions
    - inspections and violations 1270–1271
- enforcement 1227–1247
- international law of the sea
  - coastal states. see regulation
  - flag states. see regulation
  - maritime zones
    - contiguous zone 944
    - exclusive economic zone (EEZ) 100, 945–946, 949, 1040–1041, 1295–1296
    - internal waters 1273
    - territorial sea 99–100, 944, 948–949, 1038–1039, 1042–1043, 1140–1142, 1240–1241, 1296–1297
  - regulation by coastal states
    - exclusive economic zone 100, 945–946, 949, 1040–1041, 1295–1296
    - internal waters 1273
    - territorial sea 99–100, 944, 948–949, 1038–1039, 1042–1043, 1140–1142, 1240–1241, 1296–1297
  - jurisdiction. see international law of the sea, regulation
  - Prevention of Pollution from Ships. see also MARPOL
    - background
      - OILPOL 54, 22, 464
    - garbage (Annex V) 980–983, 1264
    - noxious liquid substances in bulk (Annex II)
      - general
        
        operational discharges of residues 973–975
      - shipboard marine pollution emergency plan (SMPEP) 1111–1112
    - oil (Annex I)
      - operational discharges of oil
        
        crude oil washing operations 968–969
        
        Oil Record Book 965–966, 969
      - requirements for cargo area of oil tankers
        
        equipment
        
        crude oil washing requirements 968–969
      - shipboard oil pollution emergency plan (SOPEP) 1111–1112
    - Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS). see SOLAS
    - Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments
      - Ballast Water Management Convention 74–75, 1001–1002, 1022–1029
        
        provisions
        
        ballast water exchange and performance standards
        
        survey and certification requirements 1228
International Safety Management Code. see ISM Code
International Ship and Port Facility Security Code. see ISPS Code
Page 1358

International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ltd. see ITOPF
International Tonnage Certificates 264–265
International treaties and conventions. see Treaties and conventions
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 10, 105
International Union of Marine Insurers (IUMI) 9, 641, 856, 878, 895
Intersessional Working Groups. see IOPC Funds
INTERTANKO (International Association of Independent Tanker Owners 9, 63, 71, 272, 710, 856, 1239, 1254, 1286, 1294–1297, 1324. see Table of Cases
- bunker compliance clause 710
- case, ECJ 1294–1297
- decision, US 62–63
- financial responsibility 261–267, 425–426
- OPA-90, relationship to other law 504–507
- scrubber clause 711
- vetting inspection clause 708
Intervention. see also Intervention Convention 1969
- state intervention. see Intervention Convention 1969, Intervention on the High Seas Act
Intervention Convention 1969 28, 1038–1043
- Civil Liability Conventions 920–921
- costs 864–874, 1042
- exclusive economic zone 100, 945–946, 949, 1040–1041, 1295–1296
- exercise of right to take measures 1041–1042
- grave and imminent danger 1041
- International Maritime Organization 7–8, 294–295, 1055–1060, 1231, 1236
- “maritime casualty” 1039–1040, 1229, 1241–1243
- pollutants 1041
- right of intervention 1038–1043
  - exclusive economic zone 1040–1041
- “ship” 1039–1040
- territorial sea 1038–1042
Intervention on the High Seas Act (United States) 421–422
Invoices 552
IOPC Funds (International Oil Pollution Compensation Funds) 8–9. see also Fund Conventions 1971 and 1992
- Administrative Council 174
- Admissibility of claims, under. see Claims
- Assemblies
  - claims, determination and settlement, role in 185–186, 195–196, 445
  - composition 8, 173
  - consistency between decisions of 1971 and 1992 Fund Assemblies 185–186, 445
  - functions 173–174
  - records of decisions 9, 174, 1326
  - resolutions
    - No. 3 (1971 Fund), damage to marine environment 436–440
    - significance under 1969 Vienna Convention 16–17
  - rules of procedure 173–174
  - uniform application of Conventions
    - emphasis on 443
    - role in maintaining 444–445
- claims
  - admissibility criteria. see Criteria for admissibility of claims
  - claims handling 195
  - Claims Manuals 178, 446–447
  - clean-up operations and preventive measures 449–480
  - damage to marine environment 558–568
  - determination and settlement 195–196
    - co-operation with insurers 194
    - economic loss 511–515, 519–553
    - interim payments 196–205
    - procedures 195
  - legal proceedings against Fund 205–206, 211–212
- compensation
  - cases in which Funds pay
    - damage exceeds liability limit under CLC 183–184
    - no liability under CLC 179–181
    - shipowner exonerated from liability 180–181
    - unidentified ship 179–180
    - shipowner financially incapable 181–183
      - assets insufficient 182
      - financial security requirements
        
        not applicable 166, 181
        
        not complied with 182
        
        insurance cover insufficient 182
    - shipowner’s expenses 160, 184
  - distribution 160, 189–191
  - limits
    - amounts 187
    - conversion into national currency 188–189
    - interest awarded against shipowner, effect of 188
    - interest paid or payable by Funds 188
    - natural phenomenon 187–188
    - unit of account 188–189
- constitution 173
- contributions
  - capping, 1992 Fund Protocol 54
  - collection 176
  - contributing oil 176
  - funding by 175–177
  - quantities received in main contributory states 177
- criteria for admissibility of claims. see Criteria for admissibility of claims
- decisions. see also Criteria for admissibility of claims
  - consistency between decisions of 1971 and 1992 Funds 186–186, 445
  - records of 9, 174, 1326
  - role in maintaining international uniformity 444–445
- Page 1359
  
  Director of the Funds
  - claims-settling authority 196
  - legal representative of Funds 8, 175
- dissolution, 1971 Fund 30, 172, 202
- exclusion of liability 184–185
- Executive Committees
  - claims
    - criteria for admissibility, role in developing 8
    - determination and settlement, role in 185–186, 195–196, 445
  - composition 174
  - establishment of, 1992 Fund 174
  - functions 174
  - records of decisions 9, 174, 1326
  - uniform application of Conventions, role in maintaining 444–445
- finance 171, 175–177
- funding by contributors. see contributions
- governing bodies. see Assemblies, Executive Committees
- headquarters 8, 173
- indemnification
  - under STOPIA 213–215
  - under TOPIA 215–216
- information sources 9, 177–178, 1326
- interest
  - payable by contributors to Funds 176
  - payable by Funds to claimants 186
    - effect on Funds’ liability limit 188
  - payable by shipowner to claimants
    - effect on Funds’ liability limit, 1992 Fund 188
- interim payments
  - background 196
  - Interim Payment Standard Terms 203–205
  - issues 197
  - overpayment
    - balanacing payment between Fund and insurer 200, 204
    - implications 198
    - risk of 197
    - subrogation 199
  - practice followed with insurers 196–197, 203–205
- Internal Regulations 173
- Intersessional Working Groups (1971 Fund)
  - Fifth
    - damage to the marine environment, claims for 560
    - fixed costs, claims for 465
    - interest, payment of 186
  - Sixth (changes to 1984 Protocols) 54
- Intersessional Working Groups (1992 Fund)
  - Second
    - consideration of definition of “ship”, CLC 92
      - offshore craft 104, 120, 296–297
      - unladen vessels 109–111
      - vessels constructed or adapted for carriage of persistent oil and other cargoes 111
  - Third
    - review of compensation regime 70–72
      - criteria governing fo claims environmental damage 564–565
      - environmental impact studies 566
      - jurisdiction of national courts 164
      - ‘‘ship’’, CLC 92 definition, possible revision 104
    - revision of conventions, decided against 70–71, 104, 1247
    - substandard shipping 1247
  - Fourth
    - establishment to examine non-technical measures to promote quality shipping 1247
    - measures introduced by P&I Clubs 1247
  - Fifth (HNS Focus Group)
    - development of draft HNS Protocol 362–363
  - Seventh
- definition of “ship”, CLC 92, consideration of, 105
- legal proceedings
  - extent to which Funds bound by proceedings against shipowner 206
  - intervention by Funds in proceedings against shipowner 193
  - notification 192–193
- liability. see compensation and exclusion of liability
- limit of Fund’s liability 187–191
  - amount, 1992 Fund 187
  - conversion into national currency 188–189
  - distribution of available compensation 189–192
    - distribution unnecessary 190
    - ‘SLQ’ claims 191
  - natural phenomenon 187
  - interest, effect of. see interest unit of account188–189
- member states 8, 171–172, 209
- Memorandum of Understanding with International Group of P&I Clubs 194–195, 214
- notification, proceedings under Civil Liability Conventions 192–193
- object 8, 30, 171–172
- oil, contributing. see contributions
- oil receivers 175–177
- oil reports 176
- organs 8, 173–175
- P&I Clubs, co-operation with 77, 194–195
- purpose 8, 171–172, 209
- recourse
  - against shipowner and guarantor 206
  - against third parties 207
    - charterers 704–705
    - owners of colliding ships 750–751
  - Funds’ subrogation to rights of other parties 208
  - Funds’ subrogation to rights of shipowner 207
- Page 1360
  
  secretariat 8, 175
- subrogation 206–209. see also recourse
  - Funds’ subrogation to rights of shipowner 207
  - Funds’ subrogation to recovery rights of other parties 208
  - rights of subrogation against Funds
    - insurer of claimant 208
    - other parties 209
    - shipowners and insurers 199–200
- Supplementary Fund. see Supplementary Fund
- time limit for proceedings 193–194
- website 8, 177–178
- winding up, 1971 Fund 30, 172, 202
- Working Groups. see Intersessional Working Groups
Invasive aquatic species 11, 74
ISM (International Safety Management) Code 53
- criminal offences 398–399, 405–407, 1306–1307
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
- P&I cover 809–825
ISPS (International Ship and Port Facility Security) Code 67, 133, 292–294, 950, 955, 1247
ITOPF (International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Ltd) 58–59
- international developments 1990–2000 58–59
- technical issues 56, 437, 522, 556, 799
- Torrey Canyon, international response to 27–28
- TOVALOP 27–28
IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) 10, 105
IUMI (International Union of Marine Insurers) 9, 641, 856, 878, 895

JCPOA (Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action) 819–820
Joint and several liability
- bareboat charters 775, 782, 795
- Bunkers Convention 298, 349–350, 447–448, 653, 718–719, 835
- CERCLA (United States) 415–420, 422, 577–579
- charterers 704–705
- Deepwater Port Act (United States) 46–47
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) 819–820
Judgments. see Enforcement of judgments, Recognition of judgments
Judicial review 422–425
- CERCLA (United States) 415–420, 422, 577–579
- natural resources 569–581, 590–592
- standards 602–603
Jurisdiction
- admiralty 217–221
- archipelagic waters 950
- arrest 167–170
- Bunkers Convention 298, 349–350, 447–448, 653, 718–719, 835
- Civil Liability Conventions 920–921
  - incidents affecting non-CLC states 148–149, 166, 718
  - incidents affecting only CLC states 164–166
  - incidents affecting two states subscribing to different versions 166
- coastal state control 1240–1244
- conduct 145–147
- courts 163–164, 205–206, 352–353, 390
- dumping at sea 1154–1159
- enforcement 163–170, 352–353, 390
  - international rules and standards
    - coastal state control 1240–1244
    - port state control 958–959, 979, 985–986
- exclusive economic zone 949
- federal regulatory 221–222
- financial responsibility 261–267, 425–426
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 9, 362
- high seas 949–950
- incidents affecting more than one state 164–166
- insurance 851–854
- internal waters 948
- IOPC Funds 205–206
- liability risks 324–325
- limitation funds 154, 167–168, 201, 346
- London Dumping Convention and Protocol 1151–1170
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 267–269
- port state control 958–959, 979, 985–986
- recognition 166–170
- straits used for international navigation 950
- territorial sea 948–949
- Wreck Removal Convention 1142–1143

Labelling
- containers 360, 376, 384
Law of the Sea. see United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
LC, LC/LP. see Dumping at sea, London Dumping Convention 1972 and 1996 London Protocol
Leasing 306, 315, 672, 775, 778–782, 787
Legal Committee (IMO)
- Bunkers Convention 2001, preparatory work 298, 349–350, 447–448, 653, 718–719, 835
- Civil Liability Convention 1969, preparatory work 27, 28
- liability limits, amendment
  - Civil Liability Convention 1992 97–170, 344, 652–653, 716–718
- Salvage Convention 1989, preparatory work 10, 623, 643, 863, 876, 887
- Wreck Removal Convention 2007, preparatory work 298–299, 376, 435, 835–838
Page 1361

Lender liability 775–788
- bareboat charters 775, 782, 795
- CERCLA (United States) 415–420, 422, 577–579, 783–787
- clean-up costs 868–870
- Civil Liability Conventions 920–921
- Environmental Protection Agency Final Rule 785–787
- federal legislation 776–777
- financial responsibility 261–267, 425–426
- Fleet Factors decision 783–785
- guarantors 206–207, 648, 778, 825–854
- indemnities 325–335, 778
- insurance 777–778
- international compensation regimes 775–776
- leasing 778–783
- negligence 249–251, 333–334, 392–396, 570, 1223–1224
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 777–783, 787–788
- operators 261–267, 776
- owner 775–776
- pledges 778
- Poseidon Principles 788–790
- sale and leaseback 102, 688
- security interest 778
- shares 778
- ship finance 89–90
- state law 787–788
- United States 776–788
Letters of credit 265
Liability funds. see also Limitation funds
- Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act (US) 45–46
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
- Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund 78, 243, 260, 279, 338, 668, 693, 736
Liens. see Maritime liens
Lightering 1014–1016
Lights 763–764
Limitation of actions. see Time limits
Limitation funds
- Civil Liability Convention 1992. see Civil Liability Conventions 1969 and 1992
- HNS Convention. see Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention
- Limitation of Liability Convention. see Limitation of Liability Convention 1976 (LLMC)
Limitation of liability 31, 149–161, 344–350, 379–382, 699–701, 891–938, 1135–1136. see also Limitation of Liability Convention 1976 (LLMC)
- acts or omissions 378, 675–683, 756–759, 924–925
- actual fault or privity 38–40, 923–927
- amount of liability limit 151, 380, 927–930, 936
- arrest of ships 167–168
- background 893–895
- bunker pollution 348–350
- Bunkers Convention 344–350
- calculation of limitation tonnage 151–152
- CERCLA (United States) 415–420, 422, 577–579
- charterers 699–701, 704–705
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 150–153
- claims subject to limitation 150, 898–919
- colliding ships
  - claims by parties suffering pollution damage 730–740
  - claims by owners of colliding ship (contribution claims) 749–750
  - recourse claims by compensation bodies 750–751
- compensation under the
- compensation payments by parties other than the owner or his insurer 160
- conduct barring 152–153, 922–928
- distribution of limitation fund 158–161, 932
- domestic laws 911–917
- economic loss 906
- Fund Convention 1971 30–31
- Fund Convention 1992 187–191
- general average 919–920
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362, 921
- interest on limitation fund 157–158, 915, 930
- interim payments 158–160, 932–936
- inter-ship proceedings 749–750
- IOPC Funds 187–191
- limitation funds 153–161, 930–936
- Limitation of Liability Act (United States) 37
- LLMC regime, under the 300–301, 700–701, 895–938
- marine environmental claims 891–940
- national currency, conversion into 156–157
- national laws, position under 155–156, 318–320, 921–922
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
- onus of proof 31, 927
- owners’ expenses 160–161, 917–918
- parties entitled to limitation 896–897
- payments made prior to distribution of fund 158–161, 932
- “personal” act or omission 152, 924–925
- pilots and their employers 761
- pollution damage 738–740, 745–746, 899–900, 920–921
- property, damage to 904–906
- regimes 31–32, 893–895
- responsible party 230–232, 595
- salvors 630, 919–920
- SDR 28, 894
- “ship” 897–898
- shipowners 917–918
- small tankers 151, 1015
- special compensation 920
- state of mind of person liable 152, 925–927
  - intent to cause loss 925
  - recklessness with knowledge 925–926
  - “such loss” 926–927
- Page 1362
  
  subrogation recoveries 935–936
- Supplementary Fund 209
- third parties 918–919
- tonnage
  - calculation of limitation 151–152, 928
- United States 356
- wreck removal 906–908, 1135–1136
Limitation of Liability Convention 1957 149–152, 891–894, 899–900, 907–911, 922–927
Limitation of Liability Convention 1976 (LLMC) 895–936
- amount of liability limit 927–930
- “any distinct occasion” 928–930
- Article 2.1, 900–904
- background 894–895
- bunker pollution 348–350
- charterers 700–701
- charterers’ liabilities 704–705
- Civil Liability Convention, relationship with 920–921
- claims excluded from limitation 919–922
  - pollution damage within meaning of Civil Liability Convention 920–921
  - salvage and general average 919–920
- claims excluded by national laws 921–922
  - HNS claims 921
  - other claims 921–922
- claims subject to limitation 898–919
  - bunker pollution 348–350, 908–919
  - clean-up expenses and preventive measures 908–917
  - domestic laws 907–908, 911–917
  - economic loss 906
  - environmental damage 439–440, 557, 559–562, 568
  - general principles 900–904
  - interpretation of Article 2.1, 900–904
  - marine environmental claims 904–919
  - owner’s expenses 917–918
  - pollution incidents, general considerations 899–900
  - property, damage to 904–906
  - recourse claim 918–919
  - shipowners 917–918
  - wreck removal 906–908
- colliding ships
  - claims by parties suffering pollution damage 730–740
  - claims by owners of colliding ship (contribution claims) 749–750
  - recourse claims by compensation bodies 750–751
- conduct barring limitation 922–928
  - onus of proof 927
  - “personal” act or omission 924–925
  - state of mind of person liable 925–927
    - intent to cause loss 925
    - recklessness with knowledge 925–926
    - “such loss” 926–927
- domestic laws
  - clean-up expenses and preventive measures 911–917
  - wreck removal 906–908
- excluded claims. see claims excluded from limitation
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 1996 and 2010
  - absence of linkage with 59, 362
- limitable claims. see claims subject to limitation
- limitation fund 930–936
  - constitution of fund 930–932
  - conversion into national currency 928
  - distribution of fund 932–936
  - interim payments 932–936
  - subrogation recoveries 935–936
- limitation of bunker pollution claims 348–350
- limitation of liability 927–930
- LLMC Protocol. see Protocol 1996
- onus of proof 927
- parties entitled to limit liability 896–897
  - charterers 704–705
  - managers and operators 717, 896
- Protocol 1996 936–938
  - limits
    - amendment 937–938
    - amounts 112, 558, 794, 915, 934–936
  - other changes 936–937
- “ship” 897–898
- special compensation 619–631
- tonnage 151–152
- travaux préparatoires 349–350
- wreck removal 906–908, 1120–1149
Limitation periods. see Time limits
Litigation. see Legal proceedings
- Deepwater Horizon disaster 314–317
- economic loss 434–437
- enhanced awards 618
- expenses 160–161, 184, 386
- Lloyd’s Open Form (LOF) 657–658
- Salvage Convention 1989 10, 623, 643, 863, 876, 887
- self-insurance 264
- special compensation 619–631
Load on top (LOT) system 33–34
Local authorities. see Public authorities
LOF. see Lloyd’s Open Form
London Dumping Convention 1972 (LC) and 1996 London Protocol (LP) 1151–1170
- alternative means of disposal 1161–1164, 1169–1170
- contamination risks 1166–1167
- controls 1154–1165
- emergencies 1165–1168
- enforcement 1158–1159
- explosion risks 1167
- force majeure 1165–1168
- high seas, dumping on
  - garbage 980–983, 1264
- jurisdiction
  - coastal state 1157–1158
  - enforcement 1158–1159
  - flag state 1155–1156
  - state where material loaded 1156–1157
- Page 1363
  
  permits
  - criteria 1161–1164
  - general permits 1161
  - special permits (grey list) 1160–1161
- pollution avoidance 1168–1169
- prohibitions (black list) 1160
- reasons of health or safety of life 1166–1168
- scheme 1152–1153
- scope of application 1153–1154
  - jurisdiction of contracting states 1154–1159
  - placement for a purpose other than disposal 1154
- “waste”, definition 1153–1154
- UNCLOS 1150, 1155, 1157–1159, 1164
Long range identification and tracking systems (LRIT) 952
LOOP (Louisiana Offshore Oil Port) 46, 52, 232, 248, 305–306
Loss of image claims 489, 543
Loss of life 124–126, 381–382, 733–734, 903–905, 934–937
Loss of profit
- fisheries 520
- impairment of environment 564
- natural resources 569–581, 590–592
Loss of use or enjoyment 548
Louisiana Offshore Oil Port (LOOP) 46, 52, 232, 248, 305–306
LRIT (Long range identification and tracking systems) 952

Magnuson Act (United States) 221, 400, 1003
Malicious acts 133–134
Managers. see Ship management
Manning
- alcohol testing 1316
- criminal offences 398–399, 405–407, 1306–1307
- drug testing 1315
- foreign tank vessels 1012
- National Contingency Plan 1071
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
- Tank Vessel Act 1936 (United States) 1006–1009
- training 1101–1102
- US Coast Guard 305, 844
- US tank vessels 1011–1012
MarineBio Conservation Society 10
Marine Debris Co-ordinating Committee 1011
Marine environment. see Environmental damage, Natural resources
Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) (IMO)
- application of regulatory regimes to FPSOs and FSUs 294–295
- ballast water management 74–75, 1001–1002, 1022–1029
- Member State Audit Scheme 1231
- Places of Refuge for Ships in Need of Assistance 1055–1060
- port state control 1236
Marine insurance. see Insurance, Hull and cargo insurance, P&I Clubs
Marine mammals, protection of 84
Marine Preservation Association 1108
Marine property insurance. see General average, Hull and cargo insurance
Marine Spill Response Corporation 1108
Maritime authorities, liability 761–766
- cause of incident
  - charts 764
  - lights and aids 763–764
  - unsafe port 207, 667, 686, 700, 714, 901, 1243
  - wrecks and hazards 762–763, 1132–1135
- liability 761–766
- pilots
  - independent fault of employer 755–756
  - vicarious liability for acts of 756–759
- response to incident 467–468, 766–768, 1071–1117
“Maritime casualty”
- Intervention Convention 1969 1039
- Wreck Removal Convention 2007 1129
“Maritime lepers” 1047
Maritime liens
- salvors’ 629
- United States 218, 220
Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) (IMO) 7–8
- application of regulatory regimes to FPSOs and FSUs 294–295
- Member State Audit Scheme 1231
- Places of Refuge for Ships in Need of Assistance 1055–1060
- port state control 1236
Maritime security 955–956. see ISPS Code
- cyber risks 88
- piracy 87–88
- political unrest 88–89
- sanctions 88–89
- terrorist attacks 66–67
Maritime zones
- archipelagic waters 945
- contiguous zone 944
- continental shelf 946
- exclusive economic zone. see Exclusive economic zone
- high seas 946
- internal waters 944, 1273
- straits 944–945
- territorial sea 944
- violation 1232–1233
Marketing
- economic loss 434–437
- fisheries 533–534
MARPOL (International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships) 34–35, 53, 293–294, 957–994. see also International rules
- MARPOL 73, 23, 34, 60, 224–225, 1006–1011, 1093–1095, 1110–1112
- Page 1364
  
  MARPOL 73/78 23, 60, 224–225, 1009–1011, 1093–1095, 1110–1112
- MARPOL regulations as amended
  - accidental discharges 802–803, 1260–1263
  - amendments 959–960
  - Annex I (oil) 960–971
  - Annex II (noxious liquid substances) 971–976
  - Annex III (harmful substances in packaged forms) 976–977
  - Annex IV (sewage) 977–980
  - Annex V (garbage) 980–983, 1264
  - Annex VI (air pollution) 983–994
  - ballast 370, 1327
  - carbon intensity 992–994
  - cargo area of oil tankers, requirements for 966–969
  - cargo record book 975
  - carriage of heavy grade oil as cargo 967
  - certificates and certification
    - Annex I (oil) 962–963
    - Annex II (noxious liquid substances) 972
    - Annex IV (sewage) 978
    - Annex VI (air pollution) 984–985
  - cleaning agents and additives 974
  - construction and equipment requirements 963–965
    - Annex I (oil) 963–965
      - cargo areas 966–968
    - Annex II (noxious liquid substances) 972–973
  - controlled discharges 968–969, 973, 978–979
  - criminal offences 398–399, 405–407, 1251–1265, 1306–1307. see also violations
  - crude oil washing 969
  - design, construction, arrangement and equipment 972–973
  - discharges in the Antarctic area 974–975
  - discharge conditions 965, 968
  - discharge connections 964
  - discharge of residues 981–982
    - category X 974
    - categories Y and Z 974
  - discharge standards 973–974
  - domestic laws, relationship between 1289–1290
  - double bottoms 966–967
  - double hulls 966–967, 1013
  - emission control areas
    - fuel oil availability and quality 990–992
    - NOx emission control areas (NECAs) 986–987
    - ozone-depleting substances 986–987
    - reception facilities 990
    - shipboard incineration 989–990
    - SOx emission control areas (SECAs) 987–989
    - volatile organic compounds (VOCs) 989
  - equipment 968, 972–973, 978–979
  - exceptions and exemptions 962, 971–972
  - fixed and floating platforms 970
  - fuel tank protection 964
  - garbage 980–983, 1264
  - hazardous or noxious substances 31, 372, 462, 621, 733, 1063, 1132
  - IMDG Code 695, 977
  - implementation 1009–1011
    - international developments 1990–2000 53
    - International Oil Pollution Prevention (IOPP) Certificate 263, 963, 1010, 1094, 1104, 1266
    - liability. see also criminal offences, violations
      - exemption for accidental discharges 802–803, 1260–1263
    - machinery spaces, requirements for 963
    - means of control 984–985
    - National Contingency Plan 1071
    - noxious liquid substances in bulk 972
    - offshore craft 961–962
    - oil discharge monitoring equipment 968
    - oil filtering equipment 964–965
    - oil record book 965–966, 969
    - oil residues 963–964
    - oil tankers 961–962
    - oil/water interface detector 968
    - operational discharges 22–23, 965, 968, 973–975, 1255–1260
    - other construction requirements 967–968
    - Polar Code 960
      - Annex I (oil) 960–971
      - Annex II (noxious liquid substances) 971–976
      - Annex III (harmful substances carried in packaged forms) 976–977
      - Annex IV (sewage) 977–980
      - Annex V (garbage) 980–983, 1264
    - pollution from offshore operations and craft 293–294, 958, 962, 970, 980–981, 984, 985
    - port state control 958–959, 975, 979, 985–986
    - prevention 34–35, 969, 970, 975–994
    - pre-washes 114–117, 974
    - procedures and arrangements manual 975
    - reception facilities 969–970
      - Annex I (oil) 969–970
      - Annex II (noxious liquid substances) 976
      - Annex IV (sewage) 979
      - Annex V (garbage) 980–983, 1264
    - response measures 706, 767–768, 1274–1275
    - segregated ballast tanks 370, 966, 1327
    - segregation of oil and water ballast and carriage of oil in forepeak tanks 965
    - Shipboard Marine Pollution Emergency Plan (SMPEP) 975, 1111–1112
    - Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan (SOPEP) 969, 1111–1112
    - sludge 963–964
    - Page 1365
      
      special areas
      - Annex I (oil) 962
      - Annex V (garbage) 980–983, 1264
      - Annex VI (air pollution). see emission control areas
    - spoilt cargoes 982, 1153, 1155, 1156
    - surveys
      - Annex I (oil) 962–963
      - Annex II (noxious liquid substances) 972
      - Annex IV (sewage) 978
      - Annex VI (air pollution) 984–985
    - Tank Vessel Act 1936 (United States) 1006–1009
    - technical co-operation 994
    - US Coast Guard 305, 844
    - use or carriage of oils in the Antarctic area, special requirements 970–971
    - verification of compliance 960, 971, 976, 977, 979, 982–983, 994
    - vessel response plans 975, 976, 1034–1038, 1092–1112
    - violations. see also criminal offences
      - Annex I (oil) 1252–1263
      - Annex II (noxious liquid substances) 1252–1263
      - Annex III (harmful substances in packaged forms) 1263–1265
      - Annex IV (sewage) 1263–1265
      - Annex V (garbage) 1263–1265
      - Annex VI (air pollution) 1263–1265
Masters
- authority 1033–1034
- Clean Water Act (United States) 45, 224–229, 397–398, 420–421, 568–572, 575–577, 1302–1306
- guidelines for action required of 1056
- liable to prosecution 1252–1253
- response measures 706, 767–768, 1274–1275
Media coverage 41, 513, 531, 536, 539, 558, 1046
Medical practice 539
Memoranda of Understanding 1236
- International Group of P&I Clubs 194–195, 214, 793–794, 1123
- IOPC Funds 194–195, 214
- port state control 958–959, 979, 985–986
“Methodika” formula 106, 436, 444, 555, 559–560, 563
Migratory Bird Treaty Act (US) 1301
Misconduct. see Wilful misconduct
Misrepresentation 813–814
Mobile offshore drilling units (MODUs). see Offshore craft
Mooring fees 548
Moral damages, awards 70, 80, 148, 437, 556
Mortgages
- insurance 772–775
- priming of 771
- ship finance 89–90
Multi-party actions. see Class actions

Nairobi International Convention on Removal of Wrecks 2007. See Wreck Removal Convention 2007 (WRC)
National Contingency Plan (United States) 1071. see also National contingency plans
- background 1071
- CERCLA (United States) 415–420, 422, 577–579
- chemicals 79, 360, 370
- clean-up orders 365, 451, 468, 652, 899
- Clean Water Act (United States) 45, 224–229, 397–398, 420–421, 568–572, 575–577, 1302–1306
- costs 864–874
- dispersants 310, 314, 1098
- Page 1366
  
  fisheries 520
- health and safety at work 317
- Incident Command System and Unified Command Structure 1112–1115
- manning 1011–1012
- National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan 1071–1092
- natural resource damage assessment 258
- natural resources 569–581, 590–592
- penalties 261
- Preparedness for Response Exercise Program (PREP) 1115–1118
- removal action 1089
- responsible parties 403–404, 1144–1145
- substantial threats to public health or welfare 613–614
- threat removal 399–402, 408–409, 416–422
- training 1101–1102
- US Coast Guard 305, 844
- Vessel response plans 1092–1112
- volunteers 453
- wildlife 457
National contingency plans
- OPRC Convention 1990 1328
- OPRC-HNS 2000 1030, 1063
- United States. see National Contingency Plan (United States)
National courts
- economic loss 434–437
- IOPC Funds 205, 443, 445
National Incident Commanders 310–311, 1085–1086
National Interagency Incident Management System 1112–1114
National laws 302–320, 1187–1189. see State law
- actual fault or privity 38–40, 923–927
- arrest of ships 167–168
- bunker spills 718, 732
- claims 435–436, 921–922
- clean-up costs 868–870
- economic loss 434–437, 491–502
- fisheries 520
- intervention 1120–1121, 1241–1242
- IOPC Funds 186–187, 205, 443, 445
- limitation funds 201, 346
- non-persistent oil 21
- remedies 138–161, 378–379, 491
National Multiagency Oil and Hazardous Materials Contingency Plans 1071
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) 311, 582, 592–601, 1267
National Pollution Funds Center (NPFC) 78–79, 242–253, 257–261, 264–266
National Preparedness for Response Exercise Program 1102
National Response Corporation 1108
National Response Framework 1086, 1116
National Vessel Traffic Services Regulations 1017–1018. see Natural disasters. Disasters
Natural phenomenon 132–133
- Bunkers Convention 2001 341
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 132–133
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 377
- IOPC Funds, liability limit 187–188
- Wreck Removal Convention 2007 1135
Natural resources 555–608
- administrative records 595
- admissible claims 564–568
- assessment of damage 556–557
- assessment plan phase 582–583
- causation 512–520, 535, 538–540, 570–571
- CERCLA (United States) 577–590
- Civil Liability Convention 1969 559–562
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 562–568
- claims for environmental damage
  - CLC 69, under, 559–562
  - independent of compensation regimes 568
- clean-up 365, 451, 468, 605, 652, 899
- Clean Water Act (United States) 575–577
  - prior to 568–575
- Colorado v. U.S. Dep’t of the Interior 581
- common law recovery of damages
  - by private parties 569–572
  - by states 572–574
- compliance with other laws 593
- costs 564–565, 864–874
- damage 555–556, 569–572
- damages
  - double recovery 605
  - measure of 571–572
  - OPA-90 590–592
- Department of the Interior final rules 581–590
- double recovery 605
- ecological damage, awards 47–48
- economic loss 434–437
- emergency restoration 593
- federal trustees 574–575
- fisheries 520
- Fund Convention 1971 30–31
- funding of studies 568
- Habitat Equivalency Analysis 598
- inadmissible claims 563–564
- IOPC Funds 563–568
- judicial review 422–425, 602–603
- limitation of actions 255–256, 268, 279, 426–427
- loss of profits 504–505, 525–526, 564
- marine environment 436–440
- modern international regimes, position under 562–568
- moral damages, awards 70, 80, 148, 437, 556
- natural recovery 596
- NOAA final rule 592–601
- non-use rules 604–605
- nuisance 569–570
- Ohio v. U.S. Dep’t of the Interior 579–581
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 590–601
- policy considerations 443–444, 556–558
- pollution damage 126, 147–148, 341
- post-assessment phase 590
- post-incident studies 565–568
- preassessment phase 582, 593–595
- pre-emption provisions 36, 51, 1021
- pre-incident planning 593
- property damage 486
- Puerto Rico v. S.S. Zoe Colocotroni 576–577
- reasonableness 454–462, 544
- responsible party participation 230–232, 595
- restoration 556
  - clean-up versus 605
  - implementation 600–601
  - planning 595–600
  - selection 597
- scaling 597–600
- standards 596–597, 603–604
- strict liability 393–396, 570
- technical issues 556–558
- time limits 1140
- trespass 570
- trustees 1090–1091
- Type A assessment 587–590
- Type B assessment 583–587
- valuation 557
- wildlife 457
Navigation
- acts or omissions 378, 675–683, 756–759, 924–925
- charts 764
- contributory negligence 136–137, 378, 469, 514, 731, 753, 760, 763, 821
- jurisdiction 950
- lights 763–764
- navigational aides 134–137, 763–764
- negligence 249–251, 333–334, 392–396, 570, 1223–1224
- safety of (SOLAS) 952
- Page 1367
  
  saffety equipment 1014
- straits used for 944–945
- tanker 1013–1016
Negligence 333–334, 392–393, 570. see also Contributory negligence
- alter egos 720–727
- bareboat charter 775, 782, 795
- charterers 704–705
- common law (US) 280
- economic loss 434–437
- environmental damage 439–440, 557, 559–562, 568
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 59, 362
- IOPC Funds 185
- lender liability 775–788
- liability 1223–1224
- limits of liability 249–251
- natural resources 569–581, 590–592
- per se 393–396
- Salvage Convention 1989 10, 623, 643, 863, 876, 887
- terminal operators 677–679
- third parties 871, 874, 887
No cure, no pay 42–43, 471–474, 637–640, 657–658
Noise pollution 84–85
Non-governmental organisations 9–10
Non-persistent oil
- bunker spills 340, 344
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 123–124, 344
- definition 124
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 365
- technical considerations 438
Non-technical measures to promote quality shipping 91, 1246
Notice
- intervention 1120–1121, 1241–1242
- IOPC Funds 192
- legal proceedings 205–206, 211–212
- National Contingency Plan 1074
Notification, IOPC Funds 192
Noxious substances. see Hazardous and noxious substances
Nuclear programme, sanctions 88, 817
Nuclear risks, insurance exclusion 819, 823
Nuclear ships 953
Nuisance damages
- economic loss 434–437
- natural resources 569–581, 590–592
Nurdles. see plastic

OBOs (Oil/Bulk/Ore carriers) 54, 103, 108–121, 136, 353, 758
OCIMF (Oil Companies International Marine Forum) 9, 43, 287, 682, 708–709, 1016, 1248
- charterers 704–705
Occurrences
- incident, definition of
  - Civil Liability Convention 1992 126
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). see also Shipment of waste
- import of ships for recycling 1208–1211
- movement of wastes 1182–1183
- Plastic Waste Amendments 1183–1184
- rules on export of waste 1185–1186
Offshore craft 286–294, 298–303. see also Offshore operations
- MARPOL Annex I
  - applicability 961–962
  - exceptions and exemptions 962
  - special requirements 962
Offshore facilities
- financial responsibility 261–267, 425–426
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
Offshore operations 283–336. see also Offshore craft, Deepwater Horizon
- clean-up 365, 451, 468, 652, 899
- contracts 323–324
  - knock-for-knock
    - fines, penalties and punitive damages 331–332
    - wilful misconduct 334–335
    - indemnities 325–335
- financial security requirements 301–302
- insurance 335
- international conventions, applicability of 291–295
  - IMO guidance 294
  - liability and compensation regimes 296–301
    - Bunkers Convention 2001 298
    - Civil Liability and Fund Conventions 1992 296
    - Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 299
    - Wreck Removal Convention 2007 298–299
  - safety, security and environmental protection standards
    - Convention on Load Lines 292
    - LC/LP regime on dumping at sea 295
    - Limitation of Liability regime (LLMC) 300
    - MARPOL 293
    - MODU Code 293
    - OPRC 295
    - SOLAS 292
- international regimes 289–302
- safety, security and environmental protection 289–296
Offshore Pollution Liability Agreement (OPOL) 288, 320–322
Oil. see also Non-persistent oil, Persistent oil
- barges 107–108
- “bunker oil” 340–341
- bunker spills 353–355, 718, 732
- carriage of 952–953, 967, 1099–1107
- CERCLA (United States) 400
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 97–170, 344, 652–653, 716–718
- Clean Water Act (United States) 224
- combination carriers 108–109
- Page 1368
  
  contributing to IOPC Funds 175
- crude 968, 969
- definition 123–124
- discharge of 233–234, 968, 968–969, 1016–1017, 1252–1263
- escape of, measures to prevent or minimize 457–461
- federal oil spill legislation 36
- filtering equipment 964–965
- fuel 990–992
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362
- intervention 1120–1121, 1241–1242
- not “carried on board” as cargo or bunkers 124–126
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 233–234
- Oil Record Book 965–966, 969
- operational discharges of 965–966
- property damage 486–487
- recovery at sea 455
- removal 1080–1082
- residues 963–964
- response measures in the United States 706, 767–768, 1274–1275
- sampling and analysis of 1268–1270
- state response plans 1112
- tankers 961–962, 966–969
- technical issues 56, 437, 522, 556
- transfer operations 679, 970
- unladen vessels 109–113
- vessels adapted for the carriage of 108
- vessels used for storage of oil afloat 120–122
- washing 968, 969
- windblown oil spray 483
Oil and gas industry 29–31, 1247–1248
Oil/Bulk/Ore carriers (OBOs) 54, 103, 108–121, 136, 353, 758
Oil companies
- charterers and cargo owners 704–705
- clauses governing costs of preventive measures 706–707
- image of major companies 489, 543
Oil Companies International Marine Forum. see OCIMF
Oil filtering equipment 964–965
- criminal offences 398–399, 405–407, 1306–1307
- inspections and investigations 1270–1271
- offences
  - parties liable to prosecution 1252–1253
- OILPOL 54, 22, 464
- operation of 1150, 1153
  - false statements and obstruction of justice 1274
Oil industry. see also OCIMF
- controls on ship safety standards 1244–1247
Oil major approval clauses 680, 706–709
Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (United States) 229–280
- Act of God 241–242
- act of sole-fault third party 242–248
- act of war 242
- alcohol testing 1316
- bunker spills 718, 732
- charterers 704–705
- claims procedures 258–261, 435–436
- clean-up costs 868–870
- common law 280–282, 491–502, 516–519, 569–574, 720
- contribution 254–257, 876–877
- damages 238–240
  - natural resources 569–581, 590–592
- defences 240–241
- discharge of oil 233–234, 487
- double hulls 1013
- drug testing 1315
- dry cargo vessels 64–66, 78, 1111
- economic loss 434–437
- equipment 467–468
- escort vessels 85, 274, 1045, 1052, 1059, 1242
- exclusive economic zone 100, 945–946, 949, 1040–1041, 1295–1296
- Exxon Valdez 48–51
- failure to report 254
- federal maritime law 278–280
- financial responsibility 261–267, 425–426
- fines and penalties 712–713, 802–803
- gross negligence 249–251
- guarantors 206–207, 648, 825–854
- indemnities 254–257, 325–335, 778
- joint and several liability 131, 342, 670–671, 715–716
- jurisdiction 267–269
- jury trial 269–270
- legislative background 51
- lender liability 775–788
- liability scheme 229–254
- lightering 1014–1016
- limitation of actions 255–256, 268, 279, 426–427
- limitation of liability 248–254
- manning standards 1011–1012
- mobile offshore units 283, 299, 371–372
- navigable waters 219–220, 234–236
- offshore facilities 231
- Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund 257–258
- property damage 486
- proximate cause 881
- punitive damages 331–332, 800
- ramifications 51–52
- refusal to cooperate 254
- relationship to other law 270–278
- removal costs 236–238
- reporting 254
- responsible party 230–232, 595
- statutes of limitations 278
- strict liability 236, 393–396, 570
- subrogation 158, 200, 208–209, 745, 751, 935
- territorial seas 99–100, 944, 948–949, 1038–1039, 1042–1043, 1140–1142, 1240–1241, 1296–1297
- Page 1369
  
  third parties 232–233, 871, 874, 887
- uniformity of laws 1020
- venue 267–269
- vessel communications equipment 1016
- violation 251–254
- wilful misconduct 249–251, 334–335, 811–813
Oil Spill Liability Trust Fund (OSLTF) 78, 243, 260, 279, 338, 668, 693, 736
Oil Spill Preparedness, Response and Co-operation Convention 1990. see OPRC Convention
Oil Spill Response Organisations (OSROs) 1037–1038
Oil spill statistics 37–38, 91
Oil spray, windblown 483
OILPOL 54, 22, 32–33, 464, 1003
- ballast 370, 1327
- penalties 261
- shore reception facilities 34, 959, 978–981, 1010
Oily Water Separator Systems Task Force (OWSSTF) 67
Oily Water Separators (OWS). see Oil filtering equipment
Omnibus Rule 808–809
One-ship companies 161, 721
Onshore operations, clean-up 466–467
Onus of proof. see Burden of proof
OPA–90 (United States). see Oil Pollution Act of 1990
Operational discharges 22–23, 965, 968, 973–975, 1255–1260
Operators. see Ship management
OPRC 1990, OPRC-HNS 2000 12, 19, 53, 82, 295, 466, 1030, 1062–1063, 1067–1069
- clean-up costs 868–870
- costs 864–874
- entry into force 13–14, 362–363
- expenses 160–161, 184, 386
- Exxon Valdez 48–51
- Gulf War 439, 1067
- institutional arrangements 1069–1070
- International Maritime Organization 7–8, 294–295, 1055–1060, 1231, 1236
- port state control 958–959, 979, 985–986
- scope 1063–1064
- vessel response plans 1034–1038, 1092–1112
OPRC-HNS 2000. see OPRC 1990
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. see OECD
Orimulsion 124
Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act Amendments (United States) 45–46
Overspill calls. see P&I Clubs
Owners. see also Shipowners
- alter ego 720–728
- compensation payments by parties other than 160
- definition, Civil Liability and Fund Conventions 101–102, 371
- exclusion of claims against 139–140
- exemptions to defendants other than 1262
- indemnity 838
- interest awarded on claims against 188
- liability 651, 673, 674–675, 677, 685–699, 775–776, 1135–1136
- limit liability 168–170
- recovery of incident response costs incurred by 701–706
- required to be joined in proceedings 838–389
- rights of recovery against 206–207
Owners of colliding ships. see Colliding ships
Ozone depleting substances 986, 990, 1022

Packages 68, 977, 1060
P&I Clubs 791–858. see also International Group of P&I Clubs
- actual fault or privity 923–927
- arrest of ships 167–168
- bareboat charters 775, 782, 795
- biochem. see chemical, bio-chemical and electromagnetical weapons risks
- Blue Cards 839–841
  - cancellation of 843
  - financial standing of insurer 841–842
  - form and content of 840–841
  - practice 839–841
  - undertakings by owners 842–843
- Bunkers Convention 2001 835–838
- catastrophe losses 796
- Certificates of Financial Responsibility under Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 843
- certification. see financial security
- charterers 704–705
- chemical, bio-chemical and electromagnetical weapons risks 822–823
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 825, 834–835
- claims office 435–436
- clean-up costs 798–800, 868–870
- contamination 799–800
- contracts with members 793
- contracts, exclusion of liabilities arising under 816–817
- contributions 876–877
- co-operation with 194
- coral reef damage 806–807
- costs 798–799, 804–805, 864–874
- cover provided by International Group Clubs 794–797
- damage 799–800
- damages 800
- defences 809–825
- development 791–792
- direct action against 825–854
- exclusions 809–825
- expenses 798–803, 807–808
- Exxon Valdez 48–51
- financial responsibility under Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 843–844
- Page 1370
  
  financial security under international regimes 161, 181–183, 301–302, 382–383, 711, 737–738, 825–843, 1138–1140. see also Blue Cards
  - direct liability
    - claims not covered under policy 435–436
- fines and penalties
  - accidental discharges 802–803
  - intentional discharges 803
  - other 803
- Fund Convention 1971 30–31
- General Excess Loss Reinsurance Contract 796–797
- geographical scope 814–815
- guarantors 206–207, 648, 825–854
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 825
- history 791–792
- hull insurance, exclusion of claims recoverable under 815–816
- illegal, hazardous and improper adventures 817
- IOPC Funds
- ISM Code 824
- land based facilities, exclusion for escape or discharge from 823–824
- legal structure 792–793
- liability 798–809, 844–858
  - direct liability of insurer 827–834
- liability insurance 797–798
- limitation of liability 834–838
- limits 794–798, 809–825
- Lloyd’s Open Form 657–658
- Memorandum of Understanding, IOPC Funds 194–195
- Memorandum of Understanding, large casualties 1123
- Memorandum of Understanding, NOAA 605
- misrepresentation 813–814
- non-disclosure 813–814
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 843–844
- Omnibus Rule 808–809
- overspill 797
- pay to be paid 824
- penalties 261
- pollution liability risks 797, 814
- Pooling Agreement 795–796
- proximate cause 881
- punitive damages 800
- radioactive contamination 823
- reimbursement 807–808
- Salvage Convention 1989 10, 623, 643, 863, 876, 887
- salvors 801–802
- sanctions 817–821, 833–834
- seaworthiness 809–811
- special compensation 801
- STOPIA 800–801
- sue and labour expenses 807–808
- terrorism 66–67, 133–134, 807, 821–822, 1116
- third parties 871, 874, 887
- TOPIA 800–801
- TOVALOP 27–28
- unpaid calls 824
- unseaworthiness 809–811
- war risks 132, 184, 807, 821–822
- warranties 392, 689–694, 810–811, 824
- wilful misconduct 811–813
- wreck removal 803–806
- Wreck Removal Convention 2007 835–838
Parens patriae doctrine 573
Parent/Subsidiary liability 721–723
Paris Memorandum of Understanding 45, 1237–1239
Partial loss 880
Particular average 879
Partnerships 101, 225, 670, 719, 720–724, 1303
- hazardous waste 1200–1208
- OILPOL 54, 22, 464
Pennsylvania Rule 678
Persistent oil. see also Non-persistent oil
- bunker spills 337–338
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 123–124, 344
- definition 123–124
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
- technical considerations 438
Personal injuries
- claims 435–436
- clean-up 365, 451, 468, 652, 899
- explosion risks 21, 359–361
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362
Piercing the corporate veil 720, 724–725
Pilots 753–768
- acts or omissions 756–759
- immunity from suit 760–761
- independent fault 759–760
- legal framework 755
- liability 755–761
- limitation of liability 761
- vicarious liability of employer 756–759
  - pilotage authority 757–759
    - liability to shipowner 757–758
    - liability to third parties 871, 874, 887
  - shipowner 756–757
Pipelines 46, 286, 288, 303, 314, 317, 321, 322, 326
Places of refuge for ships 1044–1062. see also Ports of refuge
- IMO Guidelines 1055–1060, 1236
  - coastal states 1056–1057
  - compensation to ports 1057–1058
  - contingency planning 1056–1057
  - decision-making process 1057
  - event-specific assessment 1057
  - implementation 1058–1060
  - masters 1056
  - salvors 1056
- Page 1371
  
  independent body 1052–1055
- political level 1047–1052
- practice of states 1047–1055
Plant 86, 439, 463–464, 555, 572, 783
Plastic 1183–1184
- nurdles 5, 92, 366–367, 1122
- waste 1183–1184
Pleasure craft 481–482, 905
Pledges 778
Poincaré francs. see Gold francs
Polar Code (IMO) 960, 971, 976, 979–980, 983. see MARPOL, SOLAS
Polar operations, 85–87”
“Polluter pays” principle 248, 684, 1071, 1093, 1204
Pollution damage 99–100. see also Environmental damage, Marine environment
- international conventions
  - admissibility and assessment of claims. see also Criteria for admissibility of claims (IOPC Funds)
    - economic loss 434–437. see also Economic loss
    - marine environment, damage to 436–440. see also Marine environment
    - personal injuries 396, 558. see also Personal injuries
    - preventive measures 100–101, 126. see also Preventive measures
    - property damage 481–488. see also Property damage
  - definitions 126, 341, 433–434
    - Bunkers Convention 2007 341
    - Civil Liability Convention 1992 126, 433–434
    - revision 41
Pollution prevention. see MARPOL, Prevention of pollution, Preventive measures
Port state control 958–959, 979, 985–986, 995, 999, 1231–1240
- Anti-fouling Convention 2001 995
- Ballast Water Management Convention 2004 999
- Equasis 1239
- IMO guidelines, under 1236
- inspections 1270–1271
- MARPOL 958–959
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
- OPRC Convention 1990 1328
- OPRC-HNS 2000 1030, 1063
- Paris Memorandum of Understanding 1238–1239
- practice 1236–1240
- regional agreements 1239–1240
  - limits on penalties 261
- safeguards 1234–1236
- specialised regulatory conventioins, under 1236
- vessel response plans 1034–1038, 1092–1112
- violations 958–959
Ports. see also Port state control, Ports and Waterways Safety Act 1972 (United States)
- charterers 704–705
- claims 544–546
- compensation 1057–1058
- costs 873–874
- damage 482–483
- enforcement 1232–1234
- reception facilities 960
- refuge, of 1057–1058
- response measures 706, 767–768, 1274–1275
- Salvage Convention 1989 10, 623, 643, 863, 876, 887
- security 161–162
- state control 958–959, 979, 985–986, 999, 1231–1240
- unsafety of 762–766
Ports and Waterways Safety Act 1972 (United States) 1004–1006
Ports of refuge 865–876. see also Places of refuge for ships
- compensation to 1057–1058
- P&I cover 809–825
- repairs in 881
Poseidon Principles 89–90, 788–790
Power stations 483
Precautions
- general average 871–872
Pre-emption provisions 36, 51, 1021
- alter egos 720–727
- charterers 704–705
- Clean Water Act (United States) 45, 224–229, 397–398, 420–421, 568–572, 575–577, 1302–1306
- natural resources 569–581, 590–592
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
Press. see Media coverage
Prestige incident 69–70
- access to places of refuge. see Places of refuge for ships
- changes in law and practice, led to
  - coastal state control 1240–1244
  - EU Directive on Criminal Sanctions for Ship-source Pollution 1292–1297
  - IMO Guidelines on Places of Refuge 1055–1060, 1236
  - Maritime Assistance Services (MAS) 1032–1033
  - quality shipping, measures to promote 91, 1246
  - single hull tankers
    - accelerated phase-out 91
    - ban on carriage of heavy grades of oil 1242
  - Supplementary Fund 209–213
- CLC 92 and Fund Convention 1992
  - admissibility of claims
    - channelling provisions 138, 652–653
    - classification societies 1244–1246
  - interim payments
    - restrictions on 168–168, 525, 744–745, 1235–1236
  - Page 1372
    
    limitation of liability, CLC 92
    - maximum amount of compensation date of conversion into national currency 156–157, 188–189
- classification society
  - channelling provisions 138, 652–653
- coastal state authorities
  - response to incident, criticized 467–468, 766–768, 1071–1117
- criminal proceedings
  - imprisonment, international restrictions on 1272–1273
- direct action against insurer 825–854
- ecological damage claims 47–48
- fair treatment of defendants 1279
- France
  - impact of pollution 1257–1258
  - reaction to incident of French President 1257–1258
- maritime casualty, right of intervention in case of 1229, 1241–1243
- moral damages claims 70, 80, 148, 437, 556
- Spanish authorities. see coastal state authorities
  - Third Intersessional Working Group, 1992 Fund 75–76, 172
Prevention of pollution. see also MARPOL, Preventive measures
- Clean Air Act (United States) 1020–1022, 1307
- garbage from ships 980–983
- harmful substances carried in packaged forms 976–977
- marine environment 436–440
- MARPOL 34–35, 957–994
- noxious liquid substances 975–976
- oil 960–971
- oil pollution incident 969
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 1011–1017
- OILPOL 54, 22, 464
- Ports and Waterways Safety Act (United States) 1004–1006
- sewage from ships 977–980
- Tank Vessel Act 1936 (United States) 1006–1009
- transfer of oil cargo between oil tankers at sea 970
Preventive measures 100–101, 126, 434–435, 449–480. see also Prevention of pollution, Response measures
- admissibility
  - claims for compensation. see compensation
  - in general average. see general average
- charterers, taken by 704–705
  - TOVALOP Charterparty Clause 706–707
- Civil Liability Convention 1992
  - application to 100–101
  - definition 126, 434–435
  - clean-up. see Clean-up
- clean-up costs. see Clean-up costs
- common safety. see general average
- co-operation. see OPRC 1990
- costs 864–874, 649–650, 704, 706–707, 908–917
  - persons entitled to 451–454
  - plant and equipment 467–468
  - reasonableness 454–462, 544
  - residual value of equipment 467–468
  - salaries 450, 463–465
  - VAT 468
- dispersants, use of 310, 314, 1098
- economic loss
  - caused by preventive measures 100–101, 178–179, 207–208, 343–344
  - measures to avoid or minimise economic loss
    - marketing campaigns, fishing industry 533–534
    - tourism promotion campaigns 542–544
- escape of oil, measures to prevent or minimise 902, 905. see also salvage and related operations
- expenses. see costs
- general average
  - admissibility in general average of costs of preventive measures 864–874
- government authorities. see Government authorities
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 368, 372, 386
- insurance. see marine property insurance, P&I Clubs
- intervention by state. see Intervention Convention 1969
- Lloyd’s Open Form
  - cost of operations under. see salvage and related operations
- loss or damage caused by 468–469, 484–485
- marketing campaigns 533–534, 542–544
- oil company clauses governing costs of 706–707
- owner’s expenses
  - as claim against limitation fund
    - Civil Liability Conventions 1969 and 1992 160
    - Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 382
    - Limitation of Liability Convention 1976 917–918
  - compensation from HNS Fund 383–387
  - compensation from IOPC Funds 179
  - P&I cover 809–825
- P&I cover
  - cost of preventive measures 100–101, 178–179, 207–208, 343–344
- personal injury, caused by 469–470, 487–488, 676–677, 733–734
- persons entitled to claim compensation 451–454
- Pollution Hazard Clause 883–885
- pre-spill costs 432. see also Incident
- purpose of measures 471–478, 649. see salvage and related operations
- public bodies 463, 551
- public perceptions 441–442
- reasonableness 454–462, 544
- recovery of oil at sea 455
- rehabilitation of wildlife 457
- Page 1373
  
  reinstatement 434, 558, 563–567
- salvage and related operations
  - admissibility of costs as preventive measures 100–101, 178–179, 207–208, 343–344
    - dual purpose operations 476–478
    - objectives of modern salvage operations 622
    - primary purpose test 473–475
    - Salvage Convention 1989, operations under 10, 623, 643, 863, 876, 887
- Salvage Convention 1989. see salvors
- salvors
  - duties in relation to environment 615–617
  - compensation outside law of salvage 647, 649
  - remuneration
    - Lloyd’s Open Form 638–639, 657–658
    - Salvage Convention 1989
      - special compensation (Art. 14) 619–631
- shoreline operations 456–457
- state intervention. see Intervention Convention 1969
- technical considerations 437–442
- tourism promotion campaigns 542–544
- volunteers 453
- wildlife rehabilitation 457
Privity and knowledge 25
- recklessness with 925–926
Property damage 486
- abnormally dangerous activities 1097
- bunker spills 718, 732
- charterers 704–705
- Civil Liability Conventions 920–921
- clean-up costs 868–870
- consequential loss 329, 484–485
- contamination 299, 364, 368, 372, 435, 468, 487
  - damage not caused by 486–487
  - not caused by escape or discharge of oil 487
- desalination plants 483
- economic loss 434–437
- explosions 21, 276, 283, 304–310, 314–315
- fire 21, 276, 283, 304–310, 314–315
- fish farms and aquacultural stocks 482, 520–521, 530
- fisheries 520
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362
- loss of market value 483–484
- natural resources 569–581, 590–592
- personal injuries 396, 558
- pollution damage 126, 147–148, 341
- preventive measures, caused by 100–101, 178–179, 207–208, 343–344
- ships 486
Proportionality
- intervention 1120–1121, 1241–1242
- negligence 249–251, 333–334, 392–396, 570, 1223–1224
Proprietary rights
- clean-up costs 868–870
- economic loss 434–437
- natural resources 569–581, 590–592
Protection and Indemnity Clubs. see P&I Clubs
Provisional payments. see Interim payments
Proximate cause 881
- economic loss 434–437
- total loss 881
- war risks 132, 184, 821–822
Proximity
- claims 435–436
- economic loss 434–437
- fisheries 520
Public authorities
- arrest of ships 167–168
- clean-up 365, 451, 468, 652, 899
- clean-up costs 868–870
- National Contingency Plan 1071
- OPRC 1990 12, 19, 53, 82, 295, 466, 1030, 1062, 1067–1069
- OPRC-HNS 2000 1030, 1063
Public expectations and perceptions 441–442
- adverse publicity, economic effects. see economic effects
- economic effects
  - cost of measures to prevent or minimise 902, 905
- fishing and related industries
  - destruction of fish stocks to preserve public confidence 521–523
  - marketing campaigns, fishing industry 533–534
- tourism
  - establishments outside polluted area 536–537
  - Exxon Valdez 48–51
  - tourism promotion campaigns 542–544
  - “touristic image”, loss of 489, 543
- nature and extent of damage 1276–1277
Public interest 5
Public law 1184
Publicity. Media reports. see Public expectations and perceptions
Pumping operations 39, 125, 458–460, 484, 1047, 1263

Radioactive substances
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362
Radioactive waste shipment 1189–1190
Reasonableness
- clean-up 454–462
- clean-up costs 544, 868–870
- loss or damage 767–768
- natural resources 569–581, 590–592
Reception facilities 959, 960, 969–970, 976, 979, 990
- regional arrangements for 960
- sediment 998–999
Recognition of judgments
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 166–168
- enforcement of judgments 163–168, 352–353, 390
- mutual 167
Page 1374

Recycling of ships 75–76, 1193–1226. see Hong Kong Convention, EU Ship Recycling Regulation
- application of Basel Convention 1196–1211
- application of Basel BAN Amendment 1196–1211
- background 1193–1195
- beaching 1220–1222
- Basel guidelines 1196–1211
- classification of ship
  - as “hazardous waste” 1200–1208
  - as “waste” 1196–1200
- EU regulation 1219–1223
- facilities 1215–1216
- “ghost ships” 75, 1182, 1202, 1208–1211
- hazardous materials remaining on board 1200–1208
- “hazardous waste”, classification of ship as 1200–1208
- import of ships for recycling in OECD states 1208–1211
- Indian cases 1201–1206
- legal framework 1195–1196
- negligence, liability for 1223–1224
- OECD Decision 1208–1211
- ongoing concerns 1224–1226
- “waste”, classification of ship as 1196–1200
Refuge. see Places of refuge for ships
Refuse Act (United States) 1300–1301
- Criminal liability for violations 959, 962, 971, 1250
Regional contingency plans 227, 400, 1073, 1077
Regional laws 364, 1288–1298
Registration of ships
- Civil Liability Conventions 920–921
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362
Reinstatement. see Restoration
Reinsurance
- financial responsibility 261–267, 425–426
- General Excess Loss Reinsurance Contract 796–797
- International Group of P&I Clubs 194–195, 793–794
- limits of 794–798
- market 796–797
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
Remediation. see Clean-up costs, Remedies, Restoration
- charterers 704–705
- clean-up costs 868–870
- collision 751–752, 885
- government authority 135
Remoteness
- fisheries 520
Removal of wrecks 1133–1135. see also Wreck Removal
Repairs
- clean-up 365, 451, 468, 652, 899
- Page 1375
  
  costs 864–874, 881
- Fund Convention 1971 30–31
- marine property insurance 904–906
- total loss 879–881
Reporting requirements
- Clean Water Act (United States) 225–227
- contracts 323–324
- incident reporting procedure 1031–1032
- National Contingency Plan 1074–1075
- OPRC 1990 12, 19, 53, 82, 295, 466, 1030, 1062, 1067–1069
- OPRC-HNS 2000 1030, 1063
- response measures in the United States 706, 767–768, 1274–1275
- Wreck Removal Convention 2007 298–299, 376, 435, 835–838
Res ipsa loquitur 23, 130, 679
Research and development 1068–1069
Residues 114–117, 963–964, 973–975, 981–982
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act 1976 (United States)
- CERCLA 415–420, 422, 577–579
Response measures 706, 767–768, 1274–1275. see Response measures in United States
- charterers 704–707
- clean-up costs 868–870
- costs 864–874
- International Maritime Organization 7–8, 294–295, 1055–1060, 1231, 1236
- International Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate 263, 963, 1010, 1094, 1104, 1266
- intervention 1120–1121, 1241–1242, 449–480
- lightering 1014–1016
- loss 767–768
- Maritime Assistance Services (MAS) 1032–1033
- national contingency plans 1071
- natural resources 569–581, 590–592
- offences relating to 1274–1275
- oil company clauses 706–707
- OPRC 1990 12, 19, 53, 82, 295, 466, 1030, 1062, 1067–1069
- OPRC-HNS 2000 1030, 1063
- port state control 958–959, 979, 985–986
- public perceptions 441–442
- responsible party 230–232, 595
- shipboard oil pollution emergency plan 1111–1112
- special compensation 619–631
- state intervention 1038–1044
- territorial seas 99–100, 944, 948–949, 1038–1039, 1042–1043, 1140–1142, 1240–1241, 1296–1297
- unreasonable 767–768
- vessel response plans 1034–1038, 1092–1112
Response measures in the United States 1071–1118. see also National Contingency Plan
- area committees 1078
- area contingency plans 1078–1080
- area exercises 1102, 1115–1116
- background 1071
- clean-up 365, 451, 468, 652, 899
- communications 1074–1075
- contact list 1101
- costs 864–874
- Department of Homeland Security 64, 1073, 1086
- discovery 1088–1090
- dispersants 310, 314, 1091–1092, 1098
- drills 64, 659, 1080, 1093, 1109, 1115
- equipment 467–468, 1108–1111
- exercises 1102, 1115–1116
- Federal On-Scene Coordinator 1074
- funding 1087
- general pattern 1083–1084
- general response plan requirements 1098–1099
- geographic-specific appendices 1102–1103
- Groups I–IV petroleum oil 1104–1107
- hazardous and noxious substances 1087–1088, 1108–1111
- Incident Command System 1112–1115
- industry co-operatives 1107–1108
- initiate, determinations to 1075
- inspection 1107
- internal exercises 1102, 1115–1116
- lightering 1014–1016
- maintenance 1107
- Marine Spill Response Corporation 1108
- National Oil and Hazardous Substances Pollution Contingency Plan 1071–1092
- national priorities 1082–1083
- National Response Corporation 1108
- National Response System 1072–1073
- National Response Team 1073–1074
- nontank vessels 1111
- notification 1074–1075, 1080–1081, 1088–1090
- notification 1100
- offences relating to 1274–1275
- P&I Clubs 1114–1115
- pandemics 1116–1118
- planning 1077–1078
- preparedness 1077–1078
- Preparedness for Response Exercise Program 1115–1118
- qualified individual 1096–1098
- release scenarios 1084–1087
- SARA (United States) 406–409, 578–579
- shipboard oil pollution emergency plans 1111–1112
- shipboard spill mitigation procedures 1100–1101
- shore-based activities 1101
- state oil and hazardous substance response plans 1112
- tankers 1094–1096
- terrorism 66–67, 133–134, 821–822, 1116. see also Terrorism
- training 1101–1102
- triennial exercises 1102, 1115–1116
- trustees for natural resources 1090–1091
- Unified Command Structure 1113–1114
- unmanned tank barges 1104
- US Coast Guard 305, 844
- vessel response plans 1034–1038, 1092–1112
- vessel specific information 1103–1104
- worker health and safety 1076–1077
Restaurants, loss of income 535
Restoration 555–608
- administrative records 595
- admissibility and assessment of claims 442–448
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 97–170, 344, 652–653, 716–718
- clean-up 440–441, 605
- emergency 593
- Fund Convention 1971 445–448
- implementation 600–601
- national courts 443 natural recovery, 596
- natural resources 569–581, 590–592
- planning 595–600
- policy considerations 443–444
- practicality 441
- preassessment phase 593–595
- public perceptions 441–442
- regional 600
- scaling 597–600
- selection 597
- standards 596–597
- technical issues 440–441
Retailers 537
Revolving funds 411
Risk assessment 401–403
Rivers and Harbors Act 1899 (United States) 222–224, 1300–1301
- criminal liability for violations 959, 962, 971, 1250
Robins rule 495–498, 504–510
Rules to prevent pollution
- coastal state control 1240–1244
- enforcement 1232–1234
- flag state control 1228–1231
- industry controls on ship safety standards 1244–1247
- port state control 1231–1240
Running Down Clause 751, 885

Safe berths 246, 260, 678, 691, 693
Safe ports 689–693, 701, 712, 816
Safety, maritime. see also Maritime Safety Committee (IMO), Solas
- International Safety Management Code. see ISM Code
- offences relating to 1273–1274
- measures to improve 52–53, 954–955
Safety of Life at Sea. see SOLAS
Salaries 450, 463–465
Sale and leaseback 102, 688
Salvage 41–44, 860–861. see also Salvage Convention 1989
- Article 13, 617–619
- channelling provisions 138, 652–653
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 652–653
- clean-up 652
- contracts 323–324, 657–658
- costs 475–476, 864–874
- development of modern law and practice 478, 1046, 1201
- Page 1376
  
  economic loss 434–437
- enhanced awards 618
- environmental damage 41–44, 439–440, 557, 559–562, 568, 647–650, 655–663
- equipment 467–468
- expenses 160–161, 184, 386
- government bodies 661–662
- guarantors 206–207, 648, 825–854
- hull and cargo insurers 860–861
- indemnities 325–335, 778
- insurance 860–861
- International Convention on Salvage 1989 43–44, 611–630
- intervention 1120–1121, 1241–1242
- IOPC Funds 470–480
- liability 653–654
- limitation of liabilities 653–654
- Lloyd’s Open Form 657–658
- manning 1011–1012
- marine environment 436–440
- marine property insurance 904–906
- motives 1276
- National Contingency Plan 1071
- negligence 249–251, 333–334, 392–396, 570, 1223–1224
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 658–661
- operations involving different measures with distinct purposes 478–479
- pollution damage 126, 147–148, 341
- ports, access to. see Places of refuge
- precautions 871–872
- primary purpose test 473–475
- purpose of measures 471–472
- remuneration
  - enhanced awards 618
  - outside the law of salvage 647
- Salvage Convention 1989 10, 623, 643, 863, 876, 887
- SCOPIC. see SCOPIC
- special compensation 622–626
- strict liability 393–396, 570
- subrogation 158, 200, 208–209, 745, 751, 935
- third parties 871, 874, 887
- threat removal 399–402, 408–409, 416–422
- traditional principles 490
- United States 655–663
- US Open Form 658
- wreck removal 80–81, 470–480
Salvage Convention 1989 10, 623, 643, 863, 876, 887
- bunker spills 718, 732
- Comité Maritime International 862
- economic loss 434–437
- entry into force 13–14, 362–363
- environmental damage 439–440, 557, 559–562, 568
  - duties in relation to 615–617
  - salvor’s duties 615–617
- expenses 160–161, 184, 386
- International Group of P&I Clubs 194–195, 793–794
- Lloyd’s Open Form 657–658
- marine property insurance 904–906
- negligence 249–251, 333–334, 392–396, 570, 1223–1224
- physical damage 490–508, 545–547, 612–614
- preventive measures 100–101, 178–179, 207–208, 343–344
- security 161–162
- special compensation 619–631
Sanctions 817–821
- EU Directive on Criminal Sanctions for Ship-source Pollution 1292–1297
- and maritime security 87–89
- and political unrest 88–89
- risks excluded from insurance 833–834
SARA (United States) 399
Scientific issues. see Technical issues
SCOPIC 630–647
- background 630–631
- development 631–632
- general average 647
- insurance of liability under 751
- terms 632–647
  - Article 13 award 639–640
  - discount of award 639–640
    - liability to pay remuneration 742
  - assessment of remuneration 642–643
  - incorporation 633–634
  - invoking SCOPIC 634
  - legal framework 632–633
  - payment of remuneration 643–644
  - pollution prevention 638–639
  - remuneration and tariff rates 637–639
  - representatives 640–642
    - Special Casualty Representative (SCR) 641–642
    - Special Representatives 642
  - security 634–637
  - termination 58, 644–647
    - contractor, by 646–647
    - demobilization of equipment 646–647
  - withdrawal 635–636
Scrapping of ships. see Recycling of ships
Scuttling 338, 703, 811–813, 884, 1044, 1150, 1157, 1160, 1193
SDR. see Special drawing right
Seafarers, fair treatment of. see Criminal liability
Seaworthiness
- alter egos 720–727
- Exxon Valdez 48–51
- time policies 810–811
- voyage policies 811
- warranties 392, 689–694, 810–811, 824
Security. see also Arrest of ships, Guarantors
- costs 864–874
- enforcement of judgments 163–168, 352–353, 390
- Page 1377
  
  financial 161–162, 181–183, 301–302, 382–383, 711, 737–738, 825–843, 1138–1140
- lender liability 775–788
- maritime 66–67, 87–89, 955–956
- offshore operations 289–290, 292–296
- salvors 629–630
- SCOPIC 634–637
- ship finance 769–775, 778
- special compensation 619–631
- Salvage Convention 1989 617, 629
Segregated ballast tanks 370, 1327
Self-incrimination 1271, 1317, 1323
Self-insurance
- CERCLA (United States) 415–420, 422, 577–579
- financial responsibility 261–267, 425–426
Set-off 280, 654–655
Settlements
- claims 194–206, 209
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362
- IOPC Funds 194–205
- limitation funds 201, 346
- third parties 871, 874, 887
Sewage 977–980, 1264
Shareholder liability 723–724
‘Ship’
- definition
  - Bunkers Convention 2001 340
  - Civil Liability Convention 1969 102
  - Civil Liability Convention 1992 102–123
  - Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 371
  - Limitation Convention 1976 897–898
  - MARPOL 958
  - SOLAS 951
  - Wreck Removal Convention 2007 1129
Ship finance 89–90
- lender liability 775–788
- Poseidon Principles 89–90
- security 161–162
Ship management 953–954
- actual fault or privity 38–40, 923–927
- Bunkers Convention 298, 349–350, 447–448, 653, 718–719, 835
- channelling provisions 138, 652–653
- Civil Liability Conventions 920–921
- common law 280–282, 491–502, 516–519, 569–574, 720
- contracts 323–324
- corporate veil, piercing 720, 724–725
- joint and several liability 131, 342, 670–671, 715–716
- negligence 249–251, 333–334, 392–396, 570, 1223–1224
Shipboard oil pollution emergency plan (SOPEP) 1111–1112
Shipboard marine pollution emergency plan (SMPEP) 1111–1112
Shipment of waste 75–76, 1175–1226. see also Basel Convention on Transboundary Movements of Waste
- Basel Convention 1178–1184
- European Waste Shipment Regulation 1185–1187
  - classification of shipments 1187
  - export of waste for disposal 1185–1186
  - export of waste for recovery 1186–1187
  - “waste”, meaning 1185
- export controls 1185–1187
- import controls 1184–1185
- international laws 1177–1178
- legal framework 1176
  - background 1176
- national laws 1187–1189
- non-compliance 1184
- OECD Decision 1181–1184
- operation of ship 1190–1193
- radioactive wastes 1189–1190
- wastes from ship operations 1190–1193
Shipowners 97–99
- alter ego 720–727
- charterers 704–705
- clean-up 365, 451, 468, 652, 899
- clean-up costs 868–870, 917–918
- collision 751–752, 885
- duties of 616–617
- environmental damage 439–440, 557, 559–562, 568
- expenses 160–161, 184, 386
- financial responsibility 261–267, 425–426
- Fund Convention 1971 30–31
- indemnification 757, 778
- IOPC Funds, claims against 184
- liability 129–137, 180–181, 183–184, 194–195, 342–343, 376–383, 384–386, 688–698, 756–759
  - financially incapable of meeting obligations 844
- operational discharges 1259–1260
- recourse action by 686–687
- recovery rights of 207–208, 703–705
- salvage 654–655
- Salvage Convention 1989 10, 623, 643, 863, 876, 887
Shipowner’s Limitation of Liability Act 1851 (United States) 236
Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments Control and Management 370, 1327
Shops 535–539
Shore reception facilities 34, 959, 978–981, 1010
Sister ships 81, 721
Slops
- Civil Liability Conventions 113
Small ships 151, 215, 355, 375, 1139
Smogs 60, 505, 987, 989, 1020
SMPEP (Shipboard marine pollution emergency plan) 975, 1111–1112
Social security
- economic loss 549–551
- public authorities 551
Page 1378

SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea) 33, 950–957
- SOLAS 1960 953
- SOLAS 1974 292, 941
  - amendment procedure 957
  - bulk carriers 956
  - carriage of cargoes and oil fuels 952
  - carriage of dangerous goods 953
  - compliance 956
  - construction of ships 951
  - dangerous goods 694–698, 953
  - fire prevention 951
  - high-speed craft 954
  - life-saving appliances 951
  - maritime safety, measures to enhance 954
  - nuclear ships 953
  - polar waters 956. see also Polar operations, Polar Code
  - radiocommunications 952
  - safety of navigation 952, 956
  - scope of Convention 950–957
  - ship management 953. see also Ship management, ISM Code
  - verification of compliance 956
Solid waste 224, 235, 270, 1188–1189, 1302
SOPEP (Shipboard oil pollution emergency plan) 969, 1111–1112
Sovereign immunity. see State immunity
Special compensation
- Article 13, 619–621
- Article 14, 619–630
- problems with 630–634
- danger, apprehension of 621–622
- environmental damage 621–622, 628
- equipment 627–628
- expenses 626–628
- fair rate 627
- increment 628–629
- Lloyd’s Open Form 657–658
- personnel 627–628
- prevention of pollution 628, 627–628
- salvage 622–626
- security 629–630
- threat removal 625–626
- towage 626
Special Drawing Right (SDR)
- details 28
- unit of account and conversion into national currency
  - CLC 92, 156–157
  - Fund Convention 188–189
  - LLMC 928
Special interest groups 453
Spilling and non-spilling ships. see Colliding ships
Spills of national significance 1085–1086
Standards for pollution prevention. see Rules to prevent pollution
State immunity
- charterers 704–705
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
- warships 123, 137
State intervention. see Intervention
State law (United States) 280. see also Pre-emption provisions
- economic loss 434–437
- financial responsibility 261–267, 425–426
- forum non conveniens 164, 346, 509–510, 934
- lender liability 775–788
- natural resources 569–581, 590–592
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
- pre-emption provisions 36, 51, 1021
State-owned ships
- Civil Liability Conventions 920–921
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362
- IOPC Funds 184
Status of conventions 733, 844, 907, 914, 1128, 1325
STOPIA 213–216
- background 213
- insurance of liability under 800
- MoU between International Group of P&I Clubs and IOPC Funds 214
- payments under 800–801
- review and amendment 215–216
Stowage
- charterers 704–705
- IMDG Code 695, 977
- inadequate 679–680
- labelling 695, 953, 976–977, 982
- strict liability 393–396, 570
Strict liability
- acts or omissions 378, 675–683, 756–759, 924–925
- bareboat charters 775, 782, 795
- bunker spills 718, 732
- CERCLA (United States) 403
- charterers 704–705
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 129
- collision 751–752, 885
- economic loss 434–437
- government authorities, remedies available against 135
- hazardous and noxious substances 393–396
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362
- natural phenomenon 132–133, 187–188
- natural resources 569–581, 590–592
- navigational aids 134–136, 763–764
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 236
- Refuse Act (United States) 1300–1301
- shipowner 129–131
- stowage 679–680
- US hazardous and noxious substances 570
- war risks 132, 184, 821–822
Page 1379

Subcontractors. see Contractors
Submerged Lands Act (United States) 40, 572
Subrogation 199–200, 206–209
- calculation of 935–936
- charterers 704–705
- insurance 208–209
- IOPC Funds. see subrogation, IOPC Funds
- limitation funds 201, 346
- limitation of actions 255–256, 268, 279, 426–427
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
Successor corporations 726–727
Sue and labour 807–808
Suez crisis 24
Sulphur 987–989
Superfund. see also SARA
- CERCLA (United States) 398–399
- mini-Superfund 425
Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act, (United States). see SARA
Supertankers
- history 20–26
Supplementary Fund 209–213
- claims manual 446–447
- compensation 210–211
- constitution and membership 209–210
- funding 212–213
- legal proceedings 205–206, 211–212
- subrogation 158, 200, 208–209, 745, 751, 935
Sureties 265

Tacit acceptance procedure (IMO) 14–15
Tank Vessel Act 1936 (United States) 1006–1009
Tank washing. see Washing
Tanker Owners Voluntary Agreement concerning Liability for Oil Pollution. see TOVALOP
Tankers
- bunker spills 109–118, 353–355
- compensation for pollution from. see Civil Liability Conventions 1969 and 1992, CRISTAL, Fund Conventions 1971 and 1992, Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States), TOVALOP
- double hull 78, 996, 1013
- escort vessels 85, 274, 1045, 1052, 1059, 1242
- history 20–24
- manning 1011–1012
- MARPOL 961–962, 966–970
- navigation 1013
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 1013–1016
- supertankers 20–24
- US Coast Guard 305, 844
- vessel communications equipment 1016
Tax revenue, loss of 541–542
Telecommunications 465, 952, 1031, 1132
Terminal operators 677–679
Territorial sea
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 99–100
- criminal offences 398–399, 405–407, 1306–1307
- definition 944
- EU Directive on Criminal Sanctions for Ship-source Pollution 1296–1297
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362
- intervention 1038–1043, 1120–1121, 1241–1242
- jurisdiction in
  - enforcement 44–45
    - coastal state control 1240–1244
    - flag state control 1228–1231
    - port state control 1231–1240
  - legislative. see regulation
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
  - regulation
    - coastal states 947, 1296–1297
    - flag states 946
- response measures 706, 767–768, 1274–1275
- violation in 1240–1241
- Wreck Removal Convention, extention to 1140–1142
Terrorism
- Civil Liability Conventions 133–134
- Maritime Transportation Security Act 2002 (US) 66–67
- P&I cover 807, 821–822
- Preparedness for Response Exercise Program 1116–1118
- response measures in US 706, 767–768, 1274–1275
Texas City Disaster 21, 92, 360, 396, 488, 694
Third parties
- charterers 704–705
- collision 751–752, 885
- compensation 704
- general maritime law (US) 396
- hazardous and noxious substances 396–397
- insurance 887–890
- IOPC Funds, rights of recovery against 207
- LLMC 918–919
- negligence 249–251, 333–334, 392–396, 570, 1223–1224
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 232–233
- pilots and maritime authorities 758–759
- rights of recovery against 207–208
- salvage 651–653
- US hazardous and noxious substances 396–397
Threat removal. see also Prevention
- bunker spills 718, 732
- CERCLA (United States) 415–420, 422, 577–579
- clean-up 365, 451, 468, 652, 899
- Clean Water Act (United States) 45, 224–229, 397–398, 420–421, 568–572, 575–577, 1302–1306
- costs 864–874
- environmental damage 439–440, 557, 559–562, 568
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 59, 362
- Page 1380
  
  National Contingency Plan 1071
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 19, 98, 283, 356, 433–444, 738, 777, 966, 1069
- special compensation 619–631
Time limits
- Civil Liability Convention 162–163
- clean-up costs 868–870
- Clean Water Act (United States) 426
- contribution 876–877
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 389
- IOPC Funds 192–194
- limitation funds 201, 346
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 278
TOPIA 213–216
- background 213
- MoU between International Group of P&I Clubs and IOPC Funds 214
  - insurance of liability under 751
- Supplementary Fund, indemnification of 209–213
Torrey Canyon incident
- international response 26–28
  - state intervention 1038–1044
- legal problems highlighted by 25–26
- Pollution Hazard Clause 883–885
- state intervention 1038–1044
- TOVALOP, led to 27–28
- United States
  - response to incident 35–36
Tort
- Admiralty jurisdiction 220–221
Total loss
- actual 804
- bunker spills 718, 732
- cargo insurance 876–879, 884
- constructive 804, 812, 880, 1119
- costs 864–874
- expenses 160–161, 184, 386
- general average 879
- marine property insurance 904–906
- partial 880
- pollution hazard clause 883–885
- particular average 879
- proximate cause 881
- scrap value 884
Tourism
- Aegean Sea 54–56, 192–193, 469–470, 529–534, 545–546, 550–551, 700–703, 758–760, 901–906
- beach facilities, operator of 537
- camp sites 535, 1175, 1209, 1247
- causation 512–520, 535, 538–540
- Deepwater Horizon 312
- economic loss 434–437
- establishments at uncontaminated locations in polluted area 536
- establishments outside polluted areas 536–537
- facilities on polluted beaches 537–538
- ferry operators 538–539, 546
- Fund Convention 1971 30–31
- goods and services, supplies of 540–541
- Haven 157
- hotels 535–539
- IOPC Funds 534–546
- loss of profits 504–505, 525–526
- marketing 533–534
- medical practice 539
- polluted area, establishments outside 536–537
- postcard manufacturer 541
- promotion campaigns 542–544
- proximity 489–491, 501–502, 512–513, 517–520, 528–531, 534–536
- public authorities 442, 450, 489
- publicity 450, 514, 531–534, 542–544
- reduction 546
- restaurants 535–539
- retailers 537
- shops 535–539
- tax revenue 541–542
- “touristic image”, loss of 489, 543
- travel agents 538
- uncontaminated locations 536
TOVALOP 27, 58
- charterparty clause 706–707
- ITOPF 27–28
Towing vessels 1014
Traffic separation schemes (TSS) 33, 948
Trans-Alaska Pipeline Authorization Act (United States) 46
Transboundary movements of hazardous wastes and their disposal 75, 1177–1189. see also Basel Convention, Radioactive waste shipment, Shipment of waste
Transshipment
- prevention of pollution during 970
Transport
- fisheries 520
- hazardous or noxious materials 31, 372, 462, 621, 733, 1063, 1132
Travel agents 538
Treaties. see International laws and treaties
Trespass to land
- natural resources 570
Tugs 476–477, 641–643, 663–664, 872–873, 1287–1288

Uberrimae fidei 813
Unified Command System 1112–1115
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
- continental shelf 287
- exclusive economic zone, creation of 100, 287, 945–946, 949, 1040–1041, 1295–1296. see also Exclusive economic zone
- framework 6, 942–944
- maritime zones. see Maritime zones
- Page 1381
  
  jurisdiction
  - enforcement 44–45
    - coastal state control 1240–1244
    - flag state control 1228–1231
    - port state control 1231–1240
  - legislative. see regulation
- penalties, restrictions on 168–168, 525, 744–745, 1235–1236
- protection of the environment 44–45
  - regulation
    - coastal states 947, 1295–1296
    - flag states 946
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 60, 83, 983
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) 75, 1177–1178, 1190–1192, 1212–1213
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals 92
Units of account. see also Gold franc, SDR
- Civil Liability Convention 1992 97–170, 344, 652–653, 716–718
- Fund Convention 1992 188–189
Unmanned vessels 1104
Unpaid calls 824–825
Unseaworthiness. see Seaworthiness
US Coast Guard
- CERCLA (United States) 415–420, 422
- Clean Water Act (United States) 226–229
- double hulls 1013
- escort vessels 85, 274, 1045, 1052, 1059, 1242
- financial responsibility 261–267, 425–426
- investigations 308, 1313–1319
- lightering 1014–1016
- manning 1011–1012
- MARPOL 862–864
- National Contingency Plan 1071
- Ports and Waterways Safety Act (United States) 1004–1006
- response measures in the United States 706, 767–768, 1274–1275
US hazardous and noxious substances 359–390
- CERCLA (United States) 415–420
- claims under general maritime law 435–436
- clean-up costs 868–870
- Clean Water Act (United States) 224–229, 397–398, 420–421, 575, 1302–1306
- criminal offences 398–399, 405–407, 1306–1307
- damages 331–332, 435–436
- foreseeability 395–396, 491–495
- Grandcamp 360, 365, 396
- labelling 695, 953, 976–977, 982
- National Contingency Plan 1071
- negligence 249–251, 333–334, 392–396, 570, 1223–1224
- proximate cause 881
- stowage 679–680
- strict liability 393–396, 570
- third parties 871, 874, 887
- towing vessels 1014
- US Coast Guard 305, 844
- warranties 392, 689–694, 810–811, 824
  - implied 392
Use of force
- state intervention 1038–1044
Utmost good faith 813

Vessels. Design of vessels. see “Ship”, Tankers
Vessels communications equipment 1016
Vessel Movement Reporting System 1017
Vessel Response Plans 1034–1038, 1092–1112. see also Contingency plans, Response measures
Vessel traffic services 1017–1018
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT) 12–18, 106, 346, 349, 445, 896, 902, 932
Voice data recorders (VDRs) 952
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) 989

War. see also Acts of war, War risks, Warships Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States)
- P&I Cover 809–825
- risks 807, 821–822
War risks
- Bunkers Convention 341
- Civil Liability Convention 132
- Hazardous and Noxious Substances Convention 2010 377
- insurance 807, 821–822
- IOPC Funds 184
- Wreck Removal Convention 1135
Warnings
- terminal operators 677–679
Warranties
- charterers 704–705
- implied 392
- safe berths 246, 260, 678, 691, 693
- safe ports 689–693, 701, 712, 816
- seaworthiness 810–813
Warships
- Civil Liability Conventions 920–921
- state immunity 137, 853–854
Washing
- oil 22, 33–35, 114–117, 968–969
- IOPC Funds, pollution from unidentified ship 179–180
Waste. see also Dumping at Sea, Hazardous waste, Recycling of ships
- charterer’s liability for disposal 704–705
- shipment of 75–76, 1175–1226
Water pollution. see Clean Water Act (United States)
Wetlands 572–573
Wharfingers 496, 678
Wildlife. see also. see also Birds, Habitats clean-ups
- criminal offences 398–399, 405–407, 1306–1307
- Page 1382
  
  natural resources 569–581, 590–592
- wetlands 572–573
Wilful misconduct
- Clean Water Act (United States) 228, 315
- insurer’s liability, effect on 834–838, 854–858
- Oil Pollution Act 1990 (United States) 249–251, 265, 315, 331
- P&I cover 800, 802–803, 811–813, 827–828
- ship management 953–954
Windblown oil spray 483
Words and phrases
- Acts of God 1301
- bunker oil 340
- carriage by sea 371–372
- clean-up costs 868–870
- consumer products 412, 418
- contiguous zones 944
- deepwater port 46
- double hulls 966–967, 1013
- environmental damage 439–440, 557, 559–562, 568
- extension of credit 786–788
- facility 417–419
- guarantors 206–207, 648, 825–854
- harmful to the marine environment (HME) 436–440
- hazardous substances 1109–1110
- hazardous and noxious substances 369–371
- imminent threat of material damage 1039
- incident 126–129, 341, 373–374
- injury 570–571
- lightering 1014–1016
- maintenance of navigational aids 134–136, 763–764
- marine casualty 1313–1317
- maritime casualty 1039, 1229, 1241–1243
- natural resources 569–581, 590–592
- navigable waters 219–220, 234–236
- navigational aids, maintenance 763–764
- negligence 249–251, 333–334, 392–396, 570, 1223–1224
- non-persistent oil 21
- oil 123–124
- operators 261–267
- owner 101–102, 371, 1131
- persistent oil 123–124
- point source 1023, 1149, 1302
- pollution damage 126, 147–148, 341
- preventive measures 100–101, 178–179, 207–208, 343–344
- public welfare 400, 417, 1303
- related interests 1041
- release 400–409, 411–419, 425–426
- responsible corporate officer 1312–1313
- responsible party 230–232, 595
- ships 102–123, 340, 371, 897–898, 1129
- solid waste 224, 235, 270, 1188–1189, 1302
- substances other than oil 1041
- sufficient cause 419–420
- territorial sea 99–100, 944, 948–949, 1038–1039, 1042–1043, 1140–1142, 1240–1241, 1296–1297
- trespass 570
- vessel 106–123, 229–230, 612
Workers’ compensation 374, 464
World Trade Center attacks 66, 133–134, 404–405
WRC. see Wreck Removal Convention 2007
Wreck removal 73–74, 80–81, 327, 470–479, 803–806, 906–908, 1120–1149
- containers 376
- contractual arrangements 1146–1149
  - WRECKFIXED 1147–1148
  - WRECKHIRE 1148
  - WRECKSTAGE 1148–1149
- Convention. see Wreck Removal Convention 2007 (WRC)
- insurance 803–806, 1138, 1145–1146
- legal framework 1120–1121
- modern developments 1121–1127
- UNCLOS 1141, 1142
- United States 1143–1146, 1170–1174
Wreck Removal Convention 2007 (WRC) 73–74, 298–299, 376, 435, 1127–1142
- background 1127–1132
- certification and direct action 826–827, 1138–1140
- definitions 1129–1132
- direct action 825–854
- entry into force
- exceptions from liability 1135
- Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), application in 1127–1128, 1140
- financial security 826–827, 1138–1140
- hazard, determination of 1132
- jurisdiction 1142–1143
- limitation of liability 835–838, 906–908, 1135
- relationship with other liability regimes 1137–1138
- rights and obligations as to wrecks 1132–1138
  - reporting 1132
  - locating and marking 1132–1133
  - removal 1133–1135
- scope of application 1127–1132
  - “affected state” 1131–1132
  - definitions 1129–1132
  - exclusions 1128–1129
  - geographical scope 1127–1128
  - “hazard” 1130
  - “maritime casualty”, 1129“operator” 1131
  - “registered owner” 1131
  - “removal” 1130–1131
  - “wreck” 1129–1130
- territorial seas, extension to 1140–1142
- time limits 1140
Wrecks. see also Wreck removal, Wreck Removal Convention
- fines 1309–1310
- navigable waters 219–220, 234–236

Yachts 548
York-Antwerp Rules. see General average, York-Antwerp Rules

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Shipping and the Environment

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